The Eastern Front Week by Week

Eastern Front Prelude #0.3 The Reichswehr

Last time we spoke about the Russian Civil War. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution and World War I, the Russian Civil War ignited, leading to a struggle for independence among various nations within the former empire. As the Bolsheviks seized control, they faced opposition from the White Movement and various nationalist groups. Ukraine, for instance, saw bloodshed between the Red Army and the White forces, compounded by external influences from Germany and Poland. Similar turmoil unfolded in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, each grappling with their sovereign destinies amidst Russian turmoil. Throughout these conflicts, the Red Army emerged as a formidable force, gradually professionalizing through strategic leadership and collaboration with Germany. Ultimately, the Soviet government established a new order, although its grip on the territories remained contested and fraught with violence. The civil war's sweeping changes resulted in millions of casualties and the birth of new nations vying for their identities against the backdrop of a collapsing empire.

This episode is Prelude #3 The Reichswehr

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more  so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

Hello again and welcome to the third prelude episode where we will be looking at the development of the Reichswehr during the Weimar Republic. 

In the autumn of 1918, Germany was a nation in turmoil. The Great War had taken a horrific toll, leaving millions dead and the landscape of Europe altered forever. As the war dragged on, the German populace grew weary and disillusioned. The country faced food shortages, economic deprivation, and increasing unrest. Battles raged at the front, and the whispers of revolution began to echo through the streets of cities like Berlin and Munich. In late October 1918, the German Navy, facing certain defeat, mutinied against their commanders in Kiel. It began with a group of sailors refusing to set sail for a final engagement with the British fleet. This act of defiance sparked protests and unrest, quickly spreading to various sectors of society. Workers and soldiers united, demanding an end to the war and a change in government. 

On November 9, 1918, amid the upheaval, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated. The announcement sent waves of excitement and relief through the streets of Berlin, as crowds celebrated the end of the monarchy. However, this was only the beginning of a more complex struggle. Two main factions emerged in the revolutionary landscape: the Social Democrats “SPD”, who aimed for a parliamentary democracy, and the more radical Spartacist League, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, who advocated for a socialist revolution. As the new government took shape, the SPD formed a coalition with moderate left-wing groups. They declared a new republic, known as the Weimar Republic, on November 9, 1918, with Friedrich Ebert as the Chancellor. Ebert’s government faced immediate challenges, including the need to maintain order and appease the demands of workers and soldiers who sought significant reforms. Strikes and protests became commonplace. Workers' councils, or “soviets,” were established across the country, asserting their influence over the social and political landscape. In response, the SPD sought to suppress the more radical movements. The Spartacists, unsatisfied with the pace of reform, initiated their own uprising in January 1919, believing that a true revolution was necessary to secure a socialist future.

The Spartacist uprising, however, was met with violent resistance. The government decided to quell the insurrection by enlisting the help of the Freikorps, paramilitary groups made up of former soldiers. We will get into them more in a bit. Over the course of the uprising, brutal clashes ensued in the streets of Berlin. The Freikorps, driven by a mix of anti-communism and nationalist fervor, clashed with the Spartacists, resulting in significant bloodshed. On January 15, 1919, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg were captured and murdered by the Freikorps. Their deaths sparked national outrage and further polarized the political landscape. The radical left realized the urgency of their cause, but with their leaders gone, the movement fractured under the weight of government repression and internal divisions. The crisis had been narrowly averted when the first Chancellor, Friedrich Ebert, reached an agreement with Army Quartermaster General Wilhelm Groener. The details of this pact remain undocumented, with only Groener’s account available today. He asserted that he offered Ebert the Army's backing on the condition that Ebert would take steps to suppress early strands of communism within the military and ensure a peaceful transition of power. This arrangement helped stabilize the nascent Republic during its early days and is referred to as the Ebert-Groener Pact.

Now I would like to talk abit about the German armed forces after WW1. The remnants of the Imperial Army were divided into two main factions: those stationed on the western front and their counterparts on the eastern front. The eastern front, in particular, required urgent attention as new states, some having not existed for centuries, emerged in the chaotic post-war landscape. German volunteers, organized similarly to mercenary companies, roamed the battlefields of Eastern Europe. These groups were known in German as Freikorps, that we mentioned briefly before. The Freikorps participated in nearly all the independence struggles within what were formerly the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, though they rarely played a decisive role due to their limited numbers. However, they served as a breeding ground for several future Nazi leaders, including Heinrich Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich, Martin Bormann, and Richard Walther Darré.

The Freikorps were not simply mercenaries engaged in Eastern European conflicts. In 1919, they fought on behalf of the government to suppress various uprisings and efforts to establish independent territories within the former German Empire. The most significant of these was the Bavarian Socialist Republic, which lasted about three weeks before being dismantled by thirty thousand Freikorps fighters under the orders of the Republican government. However, by 1920, the situation had shifted. The distinction between the military and the Freikorps had blurred, as many Reichswehr officers also led Freikorps units. These officers viewed their allegiance to the state as a fragile bond, maintained only when their interests coincided with those of the state. For those of you who listen to my Fall and Rise of China Podcast they are very much akin to the private armies during China’s Warlord Era. While the troops are officially part of the KMT National Revolutionary Army aka “NRA”, the federal troops of the nation, many were also being paid by regional warlords, take Feng Yuxiang or Yan Xishan for example. Such troops owed loyalty to a warlord clique and their Nation. 

In early 1920, tensions escalated when the German defense minister, fearing the growing power of the Freikorps, ordered the disbandment of two of their units stationed in Berlin. This decision was met with fierce opposition from General Lüttwitz, a Freikorps commander who refused to disband his men and felt that loyalties to the republic were tenuous at best. Instead of obeying orders, Lüttwitz rallied his forces, believing that the government's attempts to disband these troops threatened the very stability of the nation. In a bold move, Lüttwitz called upon the Freikorps to march on Berlin, igniting what would soon be known as the Kapp Putsch. Just so you are aware, Putsch is a German word that most closely resembles the French term “coup d’état” but has come to most readily bring to mind the failed attempts to overthrow the Weimar Republic in the 1920’s.

On March 10, 1920, thousands of Freikorps soldiers seized control of key government buildings, overpowering police and military resistance. As the Freikorps advanced, chaos spread through the city. The civilian government, led by President Friedrich Ebert, found itself under siege, with officials forced to flee for their lives. Ebert's government sought to maintain order and authority amidst the upheaval. In a desperate attempt to regain control, he called upon the workers of Berlin to initiate a general strike. This call resonated deeply with the people; they understood that if the Freikorps succeeded, their rights and livelihoods would be at risk. Across the city, factories halted production, and trains stopped running. Within days, a wave of solidarity brought the city to a standstill.The general strike took its toll on the Putschists. As they struggled to assert their authority, food shortages and unrest began to wear on their ranks. The Freikorps, despite their military training and discipline, found themselves unable to manage the unyielding opposition from the workers and citizens determined to protect their fledgling democracy.

On March 17, just a week after the rise of the Putsch, the tide shifted dramatically. The coalition of workers, united by their strike, weakened the Freikorps’ grip on the city. Realizing they could not sustain their hold in the face of growing resistance and the collapse of basic services, Lüttwitz and his allies decided to abandon their quest for power. In a hasty retreat, he fled to safety, aided by sympathetic police who had once been sworn to serve the republic. By the end of March 1920, the Ebert government reestablished itself in Berlin, having narrowly escaped a coup that could have thrown the nation into deeper chaos. Though the Putsch ultimately failed, it exposed the fragility of the Weimar Republic and the dangers posed by paramilitary groups like the Freikorps. As the dust settled, the events of the Kapp Putsch served as a stark reminder that democracy was under constant threat in postwar Germany, foreshadowing the larger crises yet to unfold in the years ahead. 

In the aftermath of World War I, a young Austrian named Adolf Hitler was struggling to find his place in a drastically changing world. Having enlisted in the Bavarian Army during the war, he rose to the rank of corporal as a runner. Hitler was wounded twice and was awarded the Iron Cross for bravery, which fueled his sense of nationalism and purpose. As Germany faced defeat in 1918, the Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh reparations and territorial losses, leading to pervasive discontent among the German populace. Disillusioned and angry, Hitler returned to Munich, where he experienced the economic turmoil and rampant inflation that plagued post-war Germany. The once proud nation was now a fractured society, leaving many seeking answers and direction.

In this chaotic environment, Hitler found himself drawn to politics. Initially, he attended meetings of the German Workers' Party “DAP”, a small, nationalist group. His charisma and oratory skills quickly set him apart, and he soon became a prominent figure. By 1919, he was speaking passionately about military glory, national pride, and the perceived betrayal of the German people by the Weimar Republic and its leaders. Hitler's public speaking captivated audiences, and he painted a picture of a Germany that could reclaim its former greatness. In early 1920, the DAP renamed itself the National Socialist German Workers' Party “NSDAP” to emphasize its focus on nationalism and socialism, appealing to the working class. Hitler took on the role of the party's chief propagandist, developing its ideology that combined extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism.

Throughout 1920, Hitler organized rallies and used propaganda to spread the party's message, emphasizing the need for a strong leader to restore Germany's honor and power. His dedication did not go unnoticed, and in 1921, he became the party's leader, uniting various factions under his strong leadership. He emphasized the idea of the Aryan race as superior, promoting troubling ideologies that would later manifest in dark ways. Despite facing opposition and internal challenges, Hitler's strength as a speaker and his ability to tap into the collective frustration of the people allowed the NSDAP to gain membership and traction. His vision increasingly focused on the idea of creating a national community, which he believed could only be achieved through the exclusion of those he deemed inferior. In the early 1920s, the NSDAP started to gain political influence, winning seats in local elections. Fueled by the economic instability that the Great Depression brought in 1929, the party's popularity soared. Hitler capitalized on the fears and frustrations of the masses, promising solutions to unemployment, poverty, and national humiliation. By joining the NSDAP, Hitler didn’t just become a member; he transformed it into a powerful political force. His leadership style was authoritative, and he demanded unwavering loyalty from his followers. The combination of his mesmerizing speeches, the party's propaganda, and the widespread discontent with the Weimar Republic paved the way for his future ambitions. Hitler had played a minor role in the Kapp Putsch but managed to avoid attention from the authorities. Feeling dissatisfied with the progress made by Gustav Ritter von Kahr in a larger national putsch attempt. Hitler and his followers, known as the Kampfbund, decided to take matters into their own hands in Bavaria.

In November 1923, Hitler, Ludendorff, and the Kampfbund initiated their plan. At this point, Ludendorff fully supported the Nazi party's objectives, having been one of the originators of the “stab in the back” myth crucial to Hitler’s ideology. The "stab in the back" myth had emerged in post-World War I Germany as a narrative to explain the nation's defeat and the perceived betrayal by various groups. Ludendorff, who played a crucial role in the German military strategy during the war, promoted the idea that the German army had not been defeated on the battlefield but had been betrayed by civilians at home, particularly socialists, Jews, and politicians. This belief suggested that these groups were responsible for undermining the war effort, thus contributing to Germany's surrender in November 1918. Ludendorff's promotion of the myth aimed to shift blame away from military leaders and to delegitimize the newly established Weimar Republic. He argued that the German military was still capable of winning the war, having been effective in battles up until the final stages, and that it was the actions of politicians and activists, particularly those advocating for peace negotiations, that led to Germany's capitulation. This narrative resonated strongly with many Germans who were disillusioned by the war's outcome and the harsh conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The myth played a significant role in fostering extreme nationalist sentiments and was embraced by various far-right groups, including the Nazis. Hitler and others used the myth to galvanize support, depicting themselves as defenders of the “stabbed” army and seeking to restore national pride and unity by blaming scapegoats for Germany’s misfortunes. This provided a foundation for antisemitism and helped justify subsequent political actions taken by the Nazi regime.

It was November 8, 1923, a chilly evening in Munich. The streets were alive with chatter as citizens filled local taverns, desperate to escape the harsh realities of their lives. Among these venues was the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall known for its political gatherings. That night, it would host an event that would forever alter the course of German history. Hitler’s NSDAP, orchestrated a plan to seize power in Bavaria using the beer hall as a base of operations. At the time, Hitler believed that the political climate was favorable for a putsch. The government was weak, and various factions were embroiled in conflict; it seemed the perfect moment to strike.As the night wore on, Hitler, along with a cadre of stormtroopers, stormed into the hall where dignitaries were listening to speeches. He raised his gun and declared, “The national revolution has begun!” The proclamation shocked the attendees and created a frantic atmosphere. Among them were influential local leaders like Gustav von Kahr, the state commissioner, and General Otto von Lossow, the head of the army in Bavaria. 

Hitler and his supporters took the key political figures captive, promising them deals that would benefit their interests if they sided with him. Despite the temporary control, Kahr, Lossow, and a third figure, Hans Frank, were not intimidated. Hitler demanded that they submit to him and his new revolutionary government. Kahr and the others refused, leading to the Putsch's unraveling. Hitler’s SA members attempted to secure weapons from local armories but failed to convince the Reichswehr garrison to defect, which put them in a precarious situation. As various crises began to unfold across the city amid his men’s struggles, Hitler left the beer hall to address an issue elsewhere. This decision proved to be a mistake. Ludendorff erred by allowing Kahr to go free after Hitler departed, which enabled Kahr to rally resistance against the Putsch and connect with his supporters. By the end of the first night, it was evident that the Putsch was nearly doomed. Outside the beer hall, news of the putsch spread rapidly, and police forces and military units began mobilizing to restore order. In a desperate bid to consolidate his power, Hitler called for a march through Munich to demonstrate their strength and rally support. As Hitler and his small army of supporters marched, they found that the streets were not devoid of resistance. The local police had positioned themselves to intercept the march outside the Feldherrnhalle, a monument honoring Bavarian soldiers.

On the morning of November 9, 1923, the march reached its climax at the Feldherrnhalle. Thousands of onlookers gathered, some curious, others supportive, but many hostile. The police stood firm in their position, ready to defend the democratic order. The standoff led to a tense confrontation; as Hitler urged his followers to charge, the police opened fire. The sound of gunfire shattered the morning calm as chaos erupted. Several of Hitler's supporters were killed or wounded, and within moments, the coup imploded. Hitler himself was struck in the leg, falling to the ground amidst the pandemonium. Realizing that the putsch had failed, he attempted to flee, but it was too late. The police effectively quashed the attempted coup, capturing or killing many of the insurgents. The aftermath of the Beer Hall Putsch saw Hitler take on a fugitive role. He managed to evade capture initially, blending into the chaotic streets of Munich. However, this period of hiding was short-lived; only a few days later, he was arrested, along with other leaders of the coup.

Hitler was charged with treason, and his trial became a high-profile event that garnered significant media attention. Rather than hiding in shame, he used the platform as an opportunity to air his grievances against the Weimar Republic and express his vision for Germany's future. His articulate speeches captivated many Germans, allowing him to garner sympathy and support. While serving a sentence of five years at Landsberg Prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his ideology, including themes of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and the concept of Lebensraum, or "living space." He firmly believed that the Aryan race was destined to rule and that the Treaty of Versailles had humiliated Germany. Although he was sentenced to five years, public opinion had shifted considerably by the time he was released after serving only nine months. Rather than being seen as a failed insurgent, he emerged as a national figure promising to restore Germany to its former glory. 

The Beer Hall Putsch was a significant turning point in both Hitler's life and the trajectory of Germany. Although the coup failed, it was instrumental in shaping the narrative that would help cement Hitler's power in the years to come. The putsch illuminated the vulnerabilities of the Weimar Republic and highlighted the growing discontent among the populace. In the years that followed, Hitler and the Nazi Party would work diligently to exploit the political instability and economic despair that plagued Germany. They used propaganda to rewrite the failure of the putsch as a noble attempt to save the nation from the hands of traitors and communists, ultimately transforming their image into that of saviors striving for national unity. The reverberations of the Beer Hall Putsch were felt far beyond its immediate aftermath. It paved the way for the Nazis to gain legitimacy and ultimately seize power in 1933, leading to one of history's darkest chapters, the rise of totalitarianism, brutal repression, and the horror of World War II. 

Now I want to shift back over to the German armed forces. In the 1920s, the Reichswehr was heavily involved in said putsches as well as others, suppressing them, and engaging playfully with the Republican government. When not occupied with these activities, the army focused on upholding a semblance of professionalism within its treaty-restricted forces. The Treaty of Versailles imposed strict limitations on the German military, here is a rough breakdown of said limitations. Germany's army was limited to 100,000 troops, significantly reduced from over 2 million before the war. This restriction aimed to curtail its capacity for large-scale mobilization. The treaty prohibited conscription, meaning that Germany could not draft citizens into military service, further limiting manpower. Germany was forbidden from possessing tanks, aircraft, and submarines. The treaty also restricted the size and armament of its naval forces to a fleet of six battleships. The Rhineland region was demilitarized, preventing German military presence in this strategically important area bordering France. Germany was prohibited from forming military alliances or participating in any future military collaboration that could threaten other countries.

Thus the Germa army was capped at 100,000 personnel, organized into seven infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions, intended to comprise the entire military with no trained reserves. However the state’s maintenance of the Freikorps clearly violated these restrictions, yet the Allies chose to ignore it. The general staff system, a hallmark of the Prussian and German armies since the Napoleonic era, was dismantled. In its place, German generals devised ways to retain the essence of the general staff without the official title. Among these generals, Hans von Seeckt and Walther Reinhardt were particularly influential in this effort. They successfully advocated for a more streamlined general staff system under the War Ministry’s Troop Office, allowing the new army to preserve its leadership and continue the professional development of its officers.

Now the previous podcast focused on the collaboration between the German and Soviet armies and their defense industries during the mid-1920s. This time, we will revisit this cooperation from the German viewpoint. The Soviets sought technical know-how, designs, and manufacturing equipment, while the Germans had different objectives. They were primarily interested in the Soviet Union's vast territory and its isolation from Western allies and their prying eyes. These characteristics provided the Germans with an opportunity to experiment with new concepts and formations without attracting attention to their rearmament efforts. Such experiments would lay the groundwork for mobile warfare tactics in the upcoming conflict.

Something very important to note about the German military at this time. During WW1, Germay engaged the entente powers in the western front, in what became known as trench warfare. WW1 trench warfare was characterized by the extensive use of trenches to protect soldiers from enemy fire and create a static front line. This warfare style emerged in 1914  on the Western Front, where opposing forces dug intricate networks of trenches, stretching from the North Sea to Switzerland. These trenches varied in depth and structure, including frontline, support, and reserve trenches, interconnected by communication trenches. Life in the trenches was harsh and brutal. Soldiers faced constant threats from enemy bombardments, sniper fire, and poison gas attacks, which introduced new horrors to battlefield conditions. They dealt with poor sanitation, mud, vermin, and extreme weather, leading to diseases like trench foot. The psychological toll was immense, as soldiers endured prolonged periods of boredom punctuated by intense periods of combat. Offensive strategies often resulted in heavy casualties due to the fortified nature of enemy positions. Notable battles, such as the Battle of the Somme and the Battle of Verdun, saw millions of soldiers become casualties while making little territorial gains. 

Now while this was almost the exclusive experience for Britain, France, other Entente powers in the western front, Germany als fought in the Eastern front. On the Eastern Front, the conflict did not devolve into trench warfare, as both the German and Russian armies engaged in a war of movement across vast distances. This experience granted the German leadership insights that were not accessible to their trench-bound Western allies. Research on operations in the East concluded that smaller, coordinated forces were more effective in combat than larger, uncoordinated ones. After the war, the Reichswehr expanded and refined its infiltration tactics. Chief Commander Hans von Seeckt noted that there had been too much emphasis on encirclement and highlighted the importance of speed instead. He played a key role in revising the Konzept von Bewegungskrieg “maneuver warfare: and its related Auftragstaktik “mission type tactics”, where commanders communicated their objectives to subordinates while allowing them the freedom to decide how to achieve those goals. The guiding principle was that "the higher the authority, the more general the orders"; it was up to lower levels to provide the necessary details. Executing higher-level orders was still bounded by the training doctrine of an elite officer corps. The delegation of authority to local commanders accelerated the pace of operations, significantly contributing to the success of German forces in the early stages of the war. Emphasizing the Prussian tradition of mobility, Seeckt transformed the German army into a more agile force and championed technological advancements that enhanced its capabilities, improving coordination among motorized infantry, tanks, and aircraft. Thus Germany kind of got the best of both worlds duing WW1 and heavily benefited from their wartime experience.

At the joint training center at Kama, the Reichswehr began testing armored maneuvers and recognized the critical role of radios in conducting these operations. This experience, combined with training exercises and war games held in Germany, contributed to the development of the combined motorized infantry and armor division doctrine. This innovative formation differed significantly from the armored forces of World War I but was still ahead of its time. As early as 1917, there had been some professional literature on this topic, particularly JFC Fuller’s presentations to the American Expeditionary Board, which outlined an early concept of combined arms mechanized cavalry units.

Throughout the 1920s, armies around the world explored the potential of larger armored units, but it remains unclear who originated the concept. What is evident is that the German army was experimenting with this idea at Kama by the late 1920s, although technological and industrial capabilities had not yet caught up with these intellectual pursuits. The exercises at Kama utilized the Leichttraktor, an experimental light tank with various designs produced by different manufacturers. These tanks were basic, even by the era's standards, and were never intended for combat, serving primarily as training vehicles. However, they did introduce integrated radios for tank use. The collaboration at Kama proved to be beneficial, enabling both armies to grasp essential lessons needed for the next war.

During the 1920s, the German army focused more on developing a theory of combined arms mobility than on creating any particular weapon system. They practiced and refined their concept of mobile warfare, where motorized infantry and cavalry would infiltrate deep into enemy territory, through army wargames. The officers aimed to foster a culture of offensive spirit at both tactical and operational levels. This approach contrasted sharply with the French military, which was beginning to adopt a defensive mindset that ultimately led to significant failures in World War II. While both armies had endured the harsh realities of trench warfare, they drew very different conclusions. The First World War taught the French that maintaining a strong, continuous defensive line was nearly impossible to achieve. In contrast, the Germans learned that constant movement was essential to countering the propensity of large armies to become entrenched in positional warfare. These conflicting perspectives arose from extensive debate shaped by each nation's experiences, cultures, and strategic outlooks. Throughout the 1920s, the Reichswehr sought to refine its tactics to align with the nation’s strategic objectives.

The German navy was effectively dismantled following its defeat in 1918. It faced losses in every significant battle, lost all major ships, and was restricted by treaties from even constructing its most effective weapon, the U-boat. During this period, there were two competing ideologies, as was common among European navies. Unlike in the Soviet Union, the German Navy did not have a clear winner among these ideologies. There was no single overarching doctrine guiding acquisitions and tactics. Instead, continuous competition created a fragmented fleet that was never fully committed to any one approach. The commerce raiding school, similar to the Jeune École doctrine discussed in the previous podcast, was further split into two factions: one advocating for heavy surface raiders and the other focusing on U-boats as the primary force. Many key figures throughout the interwar period supported the U-boat faction, with Admiral Hermann Bauer establishing its intellectual groundwork. Eventually, Karl Dönitz emerged as the leading proponent of the U-boat strategy, although his influence over the Navy's direction didn't significantly increase until the 1940s when Hitler sanctioned the Wehrmacht's commitment to submarines as a viable weapon.

The other faction within the commerce raiding school was known as the Kreuzerkrieg, or cruiser war. This concept was exemplified by the construction of the renowned Panzerschiffe in the late 1920s. These vessels were designed from the ground up to be fast, heavily armed commerce raiders capable of entering the Atlantic and beyond, causing disruption to global shipping. Interestingly, the Panzerschiff concept, which was thoroughly modernized, had its origins in the pre-Napoleonic era. The first ships of the US Navy were swift, heavily armed frigates meant to outpace slow ships of the line and target weaker merchant vessels and their escorts, just as the Panzerschiff would do 150 years later. This school of thought dominated German naval doctrine during the interwar years until Admiral Erich Raeder took command of the navy in 1928. Random side note here, over on my personal podcast, Echoes of War me and my co-host ran a 4 part series talking about who we thought were the best and worst Generals, Admirals and Air Commanders of WW2. Just wanted to say for Germany Erich Raeder certainly made the worst list, as he greatly hampered Germany’s U-boat develpment. If some of you listeners are World of Warship players like me, sure we love our Bismarcks, but boy oh boy what a collosal waste of mony for Germany. But I digress. From that point, the navy focused on developing Raeder's favored battleship fleet, reminiscent of the Imperial German Navy. His leadership saw the construction of the Scharnhorst and Bismarck classes and the design of the enormous H-class super battleships. These ambitious designs, some weighing as much as 140,000 tons, represented the ultimate vision of Raeder’s battleship navy.

I would like to take this time to remind you all that this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Please go subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry after that, give my personal channel a look over at The Pacific War Channel at Youtube, it would mean a lot to me.

In post-World War I Germany, turmoil reigns as societal unrest ignites revolutionary fervor. Amidst political chaos, Hitler rises, promising restoration amidst disillusionment. The failed Beer Hall Putsch marks a turning point, catalyzing his ascent. As the fragile Weimar Republic grapples with internal strife, the Reichswehr evolves, foreshadowing future conflicts.

Eastern Front Prelude # 0.2 The Russian Civil War

Last time we spoke about the Russian Revolutions and Russia’s experience during WW1.  In the early 20th century, Russia was a crumbling empire. After losing to Japan in 1905, revolution gripped the country, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to make concessions, but it was not enough. When Ww1 erupted in 1914, Russia eagerly joined, but suffered staggering losses. By 1917, the war had exacerbated Russia's internal problems, leading to another revolution. The Tsar was overthrown, and a Provisional Government was established, but it was weak and indecisive. Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and called for the Soviets to seize power. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, launched an uprising in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government. The new Soviet government signed a peace treaty with Germany, ceding vast territories. This triggered a civil war between the Bolsheviks “Red Russians” and their opponents “White Russians”. The Allies intervened, supporting the White Russians, but the Red Army ultimately prevailed, establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.

This episode is Prelude #2 The Russian Civil War

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more  so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

Welcome back to our second prelude episode. In this one we are going to focus on the beginning of the Russian Civil War and the emergence of the Red Army, Navy and Air Force. Following the signing of the Brest-Litovsk treaty, independence movements emerged throughout the former Russian Empire. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine all experienced additional conflicts. I thought the best way to tackle this would be nation by nation for coherency, and who better to start with than Ukraine. 

Ukraine

Following the October Revolution, enemies of Bolshevism united under the White Movement. In the Don region, Generals Mikhail Alekseyev and Lavr Kornilov formed the Volunteer Army. Initially small, they were forced to retreat to the Kuban Cossack Host to avoid annihilation by the Red Guards. The Volunteer Army recruited Kuban Cossacks and attempted to recapture Yekaterinodar, but Kornilov was killed, and General Anton Ivanovich Denikin led a retreat. Peasant revolts against Soviet food requisitioning led to the formation of the Don Cossack Army under General Pyotr Krasnov, who collaborated with the Germans occupying Ukraine. The Germans provided military supplies, and by the fall of 1918, Krasnov's forces fought to reclaim their homeland, while Denikin's forces cleared the Kuban and North Caucasus of Soviet forces.

In January 1919, the Don Cossack Army merged with Denikin's forces to form the Armed Forces of South Russia, incorporating other armies. In the spring, the Volunteer Army launched an offensive, capturing Kharkiv, Kursk, and Oryol by October. Simultaneously, the Caucasian Army, led by Baron Pyotr Wrangel, captured Tsaritsyn. However, a Soviet counterattack in October recaptured Oryol, splitting the White forces and forcing them to retreat south. In February 1920, a Soviet offensive seized the North Caucasus, leading to a disastrous evacuation at Novorossiysk. Many soldiers and civilians were abandoned due to insufficient ships. Denikin handed authority to General Wrangel, who reorganized the forces into the Russian Army, establishing a power base in Crimea. Despite having considerable forces, Wrangel faced challenges in launching an offensive against Moscow.

In response to the February Revolution, the Central Rada was established, led by Mykhailo Hrushevsky. The Rada declared Ukraine autonomous in June 1917 and formed the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) in November. The UPR faced internal revolts and external attacks. Red Guards captured Kharkiv in December, establishing a Ukrainian Soviet Republic (USR). In January 1918, the UPR declared independence from the Russian Soviet and war against the USR. The Red Army advanced towards Kyiv, facing resistance from a small UPR unit at the Battle of Kruty, where many schoolboys were killed. A Bolshevik uprising in Kyiv facilitated the Red Army's capture of the city in February, forcing the UPR government to flee.

In February 1918, the UPR signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, ending its involvement in the Great War and gaining recognition of its sovereignty. In exchange for foodstuff, the Central Powers provided military aid. German and Austro-Hungarian forces, along with the Ukrainian People's Army led by Symon Petliura, pushed the Reds out of Ukraine and recaptured Kyiv in March. They then captured Left Bank Ukraine, Crimea, and the Donets Basin. However, the Central Powers were displeased with the UPR's land nationalization policies. In April, they disbanded the Central Rada, abolished the UPR, and installed the Ukrainian State with Pavlo Skoropadskyi as Hetman. A force under Field Marshall Herman von Eichhorn was established to defend Ukraine from Soviet aggression. The Russian Soviets reluctantly signed a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, recognizing the Ukrainian State and withdrawing their troops. Skoropadskyi's government restored land to wealthy landowners and requisitioned food stocks, leading to an insurgency by former UPR and USR members. Von Eichhorn was assassinated in July. As Germany withdrew troops due to their impending defeat in WW1, a power vacuum emerged, leading to further conflict between the Russian Soviets, USR, UPR, Whites, foreign interventionists, and Anarchists. Petliura led an uprising that collapsed Skoropadskyi's government by October, and Skoropadskyi abdicated in December.

In October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian government collapsed, leading to the formation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR), which sought to unite West Ukraine Lands. In November, Captain Dmytro Vitovsky led the Sich Riflemen to seize Lviv, proclaiming it the capital of the WUPR and sovereignty over Eastern Galicia. This prompted the Second Polish Republic to declare war. The Polish Army captured Lviv in November, and by late November, the Poles controlled the railroad linking Lviv to central Poland, while the Ukrainians controlled the rest of Eastern Galicia. In January 1919, the UPR was reinstated and signed a Unification Act with the WUPR. A battle also emerged over Volhynia. The combined Ukrainian republics outnumbered the Poles, and by February, most of Eastern Galicia was under Ukrainian control. The Entente were divided on whether to support the Polish or Ukrainian claims, but France supported Poland. The Entente sent French General Joseph Barthélemy, who demanded a ceasefire and proposed a demarcation line that favored Ukraine, but the Ukrainians rejected the terms and resumed their offensive. The Poles organized a force that advanced upon Przemyśl in March, driving the Ukrainian forces away and securing Lviv. They then launched an offensive throughout Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, backed by French officers. In May, Romania opened a second front against southeastern Galicia. In June, General Oleksander Hrekov led a Ukrainian counteroffensive, but it drained the army of its ammunition and supplies. Józef Piłsudski assumed command of Polish forces and began a counteroffensive, driving the Ukrainian army and civilians into Central Ukraine. A stalemate emerged as the Treaty of Versailles handed Eastern Galicia to Poland.

After their defeat, Germany withdrew troops from Ukraine, prompting the Russian Soviets to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and launch a full invasion of Ukraine in January 1919. Antonov-Ovseenko led the Red Army with the plan to capture Kharkiv, Kyiv, southern Ukraine, and the Black Sea coast. Germany's withdrawal also opened the Black Sea to the Entente, who dispatched forces to key cities and began aiding Denikin's Volunteer Army. However, they were met by Red forces allied with Otaman Nykyfor Hryhoriv, who seized Kherson in March and advanced upon Odessa. The demoralized Entente forces evacuated, leaving behind military materials. The Red Army then overran most of Eastern and Central Ukraine. Kyiv fell in February, and the USR was installed there, prompting the UPR to retreat into eastern Galicia. Meanwhile, the Red Army's front began to collapse in June 1919 due to heavy fighting in the Donbass and Don Region. Denikin's White Army launched an offensive, taking Kharkov. From late June to August, the White forces seized key cities in Ukraine, including Kyiv on August 31.

Ukraine found itself in a death triangle, at war with Poles, Reds, and Whites. The UPR initiated a guerilla-style Winter Campaign, winning battles against the Reds but failing to seize key cities. Forced into a small area near Polish-controlled territory, the UPR sought help from Poland. In return for military assistance, Petliura agreed to recognize the Polish annexation of Galicia, signing the Treaty of Warsaw with Piłsudski. The UPR and Polish armies launched a joint offensive against Kyiv in April 1920. The Polish 3rd Army overwhelmed the Soviet armies, and Kyiv was taken in May. Soviet General Mikhail Tukhachevsky then launched a counteroffensive, pushing the Polish Army out of Ukraine, except for Lviv. Tukhachevsky then launched an offensive against Warsaw, but lost a devastating battle. Meanwhile, Wrangel launched a campaign to retake Moscow, advancing from various directions and seizing key cities in Ukraine. By October, the Whites had reached Oryol, their closest point to Moscow.

Under the combined circumstances of their losses in Poland, the renewed White offensive, and economic conditions, the Russian Soviets sued for peace with Poland. In March 1921, the Treaty of Riga was signed between Poland, the Russian Soviet, and the USR. Poland recognized the USR and Belarus, formalized new borderlines, and withdrew Polish forces from territory east of Minsk. Having dealt with the Poles and UPR, the Soviets focused on the Whites. The Red Army launched an offensive into Crimea. Nestor Makhno's Revolutionary Insurgent Army, allied with the Russian Soviets and USR, fought Denikin's forces, seizing territory in Eastern Ukraine. In late October, the Red Army launched a counteroffensive, seizing Kursk in November and separating the White armies. The Red Army then overran Crimea, forcing Wrangel to evacuate the White forces to Constantinople in November 1920. Completely isolated in Polish territory, the UPR launched one last winter campaign in October 1921. Three groups penetrated central Ukraine to unify partisan groups. However, the groups were defeated, captured, or forced to retreat. With that, the war for Ukrainian independence was over.

Belarus

The initial Soviet advance was largely unopposed, closely following the retreating German forces. A Belarusian People's Republic had been established under German occupation since March 25, 1918, but it was vulnerable without German protection. Belarusians, along with Poles and Lithuanians, formed self-defense units in western Belarus, but these militias were dwarfed by their Soviet counterparts. From November 17 to December 10, the Red Army seized key cities such as Polotsk, Minsk, and Babruysk with little resistance. On January 1, 1919, the Soviets established the Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia, as the demoralized self-defense units retreated into western Belarus. The Belarusian People's Republic could do little to resist, and the self-defense units eventually formed the 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Division within the Polish Army. Belarus remained under Soviet occupation for two years, during which a planned uprising never materialized.

Estonia

Estonia declared independence on February 24, 1918. By November 11, the Estonian Army, under Major General Aleksander Tõnisson, consisted of a single division of 2,000 men with light weapons and 14,500 poorly armed men of the "Estonian Defence League." On November 28, the Soviet 7th Army and 6th Red Rifle Division attacked Narva, seizing the town. By the end of 1918, the Soviets controlled Estonia east of Tallinn, west of Taru, and south of Ainaži. On December 23, Colonel John Laidoner was appointed Commander-in-chief of the Estonian armed forces and initiated mass recruiting. He formed the 2nd Division, the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion, and the Kalevi Malev Battalion. On December 31, a British Royal Navy squadron arrived in Tallinn, delivering crucial supplies, including rifles, field guns, machine guns, and captured Soviet destroyers. A Finnish volunteer unit of 2,000 men arrived on January 2 to assist Estonia. With these reinforcements, the Estonian Army halted the Soviet advance by January 5 and launched a counter-offensive two days later. The 1st Estonian Division advanced 200 km, recapturing key cities like Tapa, Rakvere, and Narva. In the south, the 2nd Estonian Division, supported by the Tartumma Partisan Battalion and Finnish volunteers, captured Tartu, Valga, and Alūksne by mid-February. By Estonia's first independence day on February 24, their armed forces numbered nearly 20,000 men with 70 field pieces and 230 machine guns. The Soviets responded by establishing a new Estonian Red Army of 80,000 conscripts.

The Estonian Red Army captured Setomaa, Vastseliina, and Räpina by March 15, while the Soviet 7th Army concentrated on the southern front. On March 27, the new Estonian 3rd Division, under Major-General Ernst Põdder, deployed to defend Võru. The 2nd Estonian Division regained Petseri by March 29 and pushed the Estonian Red Army behind the Optjok River. By April 25, the Red Latvian Riflemen captured Rūjiena but were quickly dislodged by the 3rd Estonian Division. By the end of 1919, a new front emerged along the Salacgrīva-Seda-Gauja line. Estonia also allowed the formation of White Russian, Latvian, and Ingrian units in its territory. Bolstered, the Estonians aided the White Russians in pushing into Russia.

On May 13, the White Russian Northern Corps, supported by British and Estonian navies and marines, attacked Narva, annihilating the Soviet 6th Division. The Soviet 7th Army counterattacked, forming a new front along the Luga and Saba rivers. By May 25, the Estonians captured Pskov, destroying the Red Estonian Army and pushing the Soviets past the Velikaya River. To the south, the 2nd and 3rd Estonian Divisions advanced into northern Latvia, recapturing Alūksne and Valmiera by the end of May. On May 31, an Estonian Cavalry Regiment captured Gulbene, and by June 6, the 2nd Estonian Division crossed the Daugava River before seizing Jēkabpils, where they encountered the Baltische Landeswehr.

Latvia

On November 18, 1918, Latvia declared independence, becoming a republic headed by Kārlis Ulmanis. In December, the Soviets invaded Latvia, primarily using Red Latvian Riflemen. By January, they captured key cities, including Riga, and proclaimed a Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic on January 13. The Latvian provisional government and German troops withdrew to Liepāja. On January 15, the Latvian independent battalion halted the Soviet offensive at Lielauce, and on January 22, they seized Skrunda, establishing a new front near the river Venta. On February 18, Estonia allowed the Latvians to form the North Latvian Brigade in their territory. On March 3, the Latvians, with German and Estonian support, launched a counteroffensive, recapturing Takums and Jelgava, while the Freikorps seized Riga. By mid-June, the Soviets held only a small area of Latgale, but conflict arose between the Germans and Estonians. The Freikorps captured Straupe and Limbaži, and the Baltische Landeswehr and Iron Division attacked Cēsis to establish a Baltic-German state. On June 21, the Estonian 3rd Division counterattacked, driving the Germans back to Riga. As the Latvians marched to Riga, the Entente intervened on July 3, imposing an armistice between Latvia, Estonia, and the German units. The Landeswehr was incorporated into the Latvian Army, while the Iron Division and many Freikorps members joined the West Russian Volunteer Army led by Major General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. In October, Bermondt-Avalov captured Riga, forcing the Latvian government to flee. Despite being outnumbered, the Latvian Army counterattacked on November 10, retaking Riga and Jelgava, and pushing the Western Russian Volunteer Army out of Latvia by early December, securing their homeland.

Lithuania

In February 1918, Lithuania declared independence, forming its first national government under Augustinas Voldemaras. As the Germans withdrew in November, the Lithuanians mobilized to defend their borders. However, on December 8, a Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic emerged in Vilnius, headed by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas. Beginning on December 22, the Red Army captured two-thirds of Lithuania, facing only under-equipped partisan troops. The Soviet advance towards East Prussia prompted Germany to dispatch General Rüdiger von der Goltz with the Shaulen Brigade to aid the Lithuanian forces, led by Jonas Variakojis. Just before Kaunas was encircled, the German-Lithuanians repelled a major attack at Kėdainiai on February 8. They then launched an offensive, capturing Mažeikiai, Šėta, and Alytus, and annihilating the Soviet 7th Riflemen Regiment at the battle of Jieznas. By mid-March, they retook Kuršėnai, Šiauliai, and Radviliškis.

In April, the Lithuanians launched their first organized offensive towards Vilnius, taking Žąsliai and Ukmergė. However, on April 19, the Polish Army seized Vilnius from the Soviets, shifting the Lithuanian focus northeast. During that month, the Lithuanian Army reorganized under General Silvestras Žukauskas, forming the Vilkmergė and Panevėžys Groups. Beginning on May 17, the Vilkmergė group captured Kurkliai and Utena, while the Panevėžys Group took Panevėžys and Kupiškis. Throughout June and July, the Lithuanians continued to drive the Red Army back until they reached the Daugava River, bordering Latvia, where a front line stabilized. On July 12, Lithuania and the RSFSR signed a peace treaty, recognizing Lithuania’s independence, though Poland did not recognize this treaty.

Poland

In November 1918, the Second Polish Republic was established with Józef Piłsudski at its head. Poland was surrounded by warring neighbors. On December 7, Piłsudski incorporated Polish Self-Defense units in major cities into the Polish army. The Poles were overwhelmed by the Soviet 16th Army at Minsk and Vilnius. On February 13, the first major battle broke out near Byaroza, escalating the Polish-Soviet War. That month, a southern and northern front was established. In March, the Poles crossed the Neman River, capturing Pinsk. On April 16, Piłsudski led an offensive, capturing Lida, Novogrudok, and Vilnius by April 19. The Soviet 16th Army counterattacked on April 30 but was defeated by May 7. In the wake of their victory, the Polish General Stanisław Szeptycki formed a new Lithuanian-Belarusian Front on May 15.

On August 8, the Poles took Minsk, and on August 28, they deployed tanks for the first time against the Soviets at Babruysk. In September, Barysaw and Polotsk were taken, securing territory spanning the Daugava and Berezina Rivers. The Poles benefited from the Soviets' involvement in fighting White forces such as Anton Denikin’s Volunteer Army. Throughout 1919, Denikin pleaded with Piłsudski to join his offensive against Moscow, but Piłsudski refused, believing a better deal could be brokered with Bolshevik Russia. Some historians argue that if Poland had joined Denikin’s advance upon Moscow, the Bolsheviks might have lost the war. On January 3, 1920, Poland and Latvia formed an alliance, launching a joint offensive, taking the Soviet 15th Army by surprise and capturing Daugavpils within two days, severing communications between Lithuania and the Soviets. In March, General Władysław Sikorski initiated a new offensive in Polesia, driving a wedge between the Soviet forces in Belarus and Ukraine.

In April, Symon Petliura signed the Treaty of Warsaw, ceding claims over eastern Galicia and western Volhynia for Polish military assistance in regaining Kiev. By early 1920, the Polish armed forces had grown to 800,000 men with 20,000 Ukrainian allies. Meanwhile, Leon Trotsky reorganized the Red Army, which numbered 5 million men on paper, though only 12% were combat-worthy. The Red Army lacked logistics, communications, and supplies, and the Polish dominated the air war. On April 25, the Kiev offensive began with the objective of creating a Ukrainian state under Polish patronage. They overwhelmed the Soviet 12th and 14th armies, forcing them to withdraw past the Dnieper River. On May 7, the Polish-Ukrainian forces captured an abandoned Kiev. In response, Trotsky ordered General Mikhail Tukhachevsky to launch an offensive along the Belarusian front on May 14. The Soviets advanced 100 kilometers before the Poles counterattacked, retaking their territory by June 8. Meanwhile, Yegorov was reinforced and launched a counterattack into Ukraine on May 29, recapturing Kiev and breaking the Polish-Ukrainian front by June 10. The Polish-Ukrainian forces withdrew to western Ukraine, unable to support Poland’s long northern front, held by only 120,000 troops.

By July 4, Tukhachevsky had assembled the Soviet 3rd, 4th, 15th, and 16th armies, up to 300,000 men strong, with significant cavalry, artillery, and machine guns. The Soviets, with Lithuanian support, captured Mińsk, Vilnius, and Brest by the end of September. After crossing the Narew River on August 2, the Soviets had pushed the front 100 kilometers from Warsaw and dislodged the Poles almost entirely from Ukraine. Poland’s existence was threatened, leading to the recruitment of 170,000 new Polish troops. France began shipping military advisors, weaponry, artillery, and Renault FT tanks. Tukhechevsky planned to cross the Vistula River northwest of Warsaw and encircle the city. Joseph Stalin, appointed Commissar of the southwestern front, opted to attack Lwów instead of aiding Tukhachevsky’s assault on Warsaw, a decision that proved fateful. The Poles had also decrypted Soviet radio messages, discovering their battle plan. 

On August 12, the assault on Warsaw began as Piłsudski designed a trap, allowing Tukhachevsky’s forces to advance north while he built a counteroffensive in the south. On August 14, the Polish 5th Army counterattacked over the Wkra River, pushing the Soviet 3rd and 15th armies away from Warsaw using Blitzkrieg-like tactics, disrupting the Soviet northern envelopment maneuver. On August 16, Piłsudski unleashed his southern attack, severing the communication and supply lines of the Soviet 16th Army. With a large gap opened between the Soviet fronts, the Polish unleashed an all-out assault. By August 18, Tukhachevsky realized his folly and ordered a retreat, but the situation was beyond salvage. The Poles pursued the enemy until August 25, taking 50,000 prisoners as 45,000 fled into Prussia. The Soviets suffered significant casualties, while the Poles also endured losses. The Poles recaptured Grodno, Lida, and Minsk, reforming a new front line. Piłsudski’s victory at Warsaw became known as the Miracle on the Vistula.

Finland

In the twilight of 1917, as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was taking shape, Finland seized its chance, becoming the first republic to declare independence on December 6th, under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud. However, this watershed moment was quickly followed by the eruption of a bloody civil war, further complicated by the Entente allies' intervention in North Russia, aiming to supplant the Red revolution with a White counterrevolution.

The Finnish Civil War pitted two formidable forces against each other: the Red Finns and the White Finns. The Red Finnish state, known as the Finnish Socialist Workers Republic (FSWR), was established on January 29th, led by Kullervo Manner. Their Red Guards, initially 40,000 strong under Ali Aaltonen, swelled to a possible 100,000, including 2,600 female fighters. Despite their numbers, they were plagued by inadequate equipment, provisions, training, and a clear command structure. The Red commander-in-chief would change hands three times until April 10th when Kullervo Manner took the mantle. Ali Aaltonen was replaced on 28 January 1918 by Eero Haapalainen as commander-in-chief. He, in turn, was displaced by the Bolshevik triumvirate of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta on 20 March. The last commander-in-chief of the Red Guard was Kullervo Manner, from 10 April until the last period of the war when the Reds no longer had a named leader. They acquired weapons from the RSFSR, with Ali Aaltonen managing to purchase 15,000 rifles, machine guns, artillery pieces and 2 million cartridges from the Bolsheviks in February of 1918 to arm the Reds.

Conversely, the White Provisional Government's White Guards, led by General Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, comprised volunteer Civil Guards, 1,450 soldiers from a Jäger battalion, a professional staff of 84 Swedish volunteer officers, and former Finnish officers from the Tsar’s army. The Jägers, trained in Germany since 1915, served as officers and instructors, forming the core of the White military. Initially, the White Guards numbered 15,000, but conscription increased their ranks to 60,000, with 25% serving as frontline troops. While the Reds received support from the Bolsheviks, the Whites were backed by Sweden and Germany. Both sides acquired around 100,000 rifles, 400 machine guns, and a few hundred artillery pieces, with the Russian 7.62mm Mosin–Nagant Model 1891 rifle and Maxim machine gun being the most common weapons. The war was primarily fought along railways, which were crucial for troop and supply transport.

The Reds seized the initiative in late January, refusing to recognize the new government and capturing Helsinki, Kotka, Turku, and most of southern Finland, forcing the White government to relocate to Vaasa. Despite being decently armed, the Reds suffered from a lack of skilled leadership, resulting in an uncoordinated chain of command and a failure to capitalize on their initial momentum. By February, a discontinuous front line divided the Reds and Whites across southern Finland.

On March 16th, General Mannerheim launched an offensive to encircle the Reds at the Tavastia front before assaulting Tampere, Finland's major industrial city. The Reds collapsed under Mannerheim’s attacks, retreating to Tampere. Mannerheim gradually laid siege to Tampere, cutting off the Red’s connections southward at Lempäälä and westward at Siuro, Nokia, and Ylöjärvi by March 25th. On the 28th, 17,000 Whites stormed the city, facing 14,000 Reds in brutal street-to-street combat, concentrated in the areas of Kalevankangas Cemetery and the Hippodrome in the eastern outskirts of Tampere. The conscripted troops suffered terrible losses, with total casualties amounting to roughly 50%, forcing them to reorganize their battle plans. Mannerheim was compelled to deploy some of his best-trained Jäger detachments. On April 3rd, the Whites assaulted the districts of Tammela and Kyttälä, fighting house to house until they reached the Tammerkoski river which divided the town in two. The next morning, they crossed the river, capturing the western part of the city and forcing its surrender by the 6th. The White Army captured 12,000 prisoners after suffering 900 casualties, while the Reds suffered 2,000 casualties.

Germany intervened on behalf of the Whites, dispatching the 10,000-man-strong German Baltic Sea Division led by Colonel Tschirschky und Bögendorff on April 3rd. They attacked Helsinki on the 12th, supported by 2,000 underground White Guards against 7,000 mostly inexperienced Red reserves who had no defensive lines or barricades and were fighting within single buildings and blocks. From 6 to 9 am the Germans broke through over the hill of Tilkka, pushing onwards to take the Pasila railway station before entering the city at 1:30 pm. Bögendorff then formed two units, attacking along Mannerheimintie street and through the Hietalahti district, while a third squad entered the city from the Pasila railway line. By 5:30 pm the Germans reached the Erottaja square where they took the Swedish Theatre and marched over the Pitkäsilta bridge using capitulated Reds as human shields. Meanwhile there was a fierce battle in the Helsinki Railway station and Kluuvi district and at 7 pm German Marines landed at Katajanokka quickly entering Kruununhaka district. A battle over the Red headquarters at the Smolna building raged until 7 am where 500 Reds surrendered. Fighting would remain until 2 pm when a white flag was raised over the Kallio Church tower. Over the course of the battle over 10,000 Reds and their families fled the area. The Reds had suffered up to 2,000 casualties with 6,000 taken prisoner, 400 executed, and the Germans and whites had suffered 77 deaths.

After taking Helsinki, the Germans continued north towards Tuusula, Kerava, and Hyvinkää. The 95th Brigade led by Major General Konrad Wolf attacked Hyvinkää, defended by only 500 Reds, mostly holding positions along the Hanko railway. At 7 am on April 21st, the Germans bombarded the city, followed by an infantry assault. The Reds repelled the first breakthrough attempt, but the Germans soon crossed the Vantaa River, striking into their rear. The Reds withdrew to the Hyvinkää railway station, pursued by the Germans who attacked the railway station from 3 different directions. Fighting house to house, the Reds began evacuating their families and civilians. Hyvinkää fell by 5 pm seeing the Germans suffer 21 deaths and the Reds 50, with numerous civilians killed or wounded.

Meanwhile, the Brandenstein detachment landed in Loviisa on April 12th and advanced north to attack Lahti along the Loviisa–Vesijärvi railway. There, 800 Red Guards and 10,000 armed refugees were dug in over Salpausselkä ridge, giving up the city without a fight. On the 20th, a White Division led by Major Kalm entered Lahti greeting the Germans. On the 21st, the Reds began a counterattack primarily against Okeroinen using an armored train. Red artillery bombarded the city from the 23rd to the 29th, with the Germans retaliating from positions at the hospital and Whites fighting house to house. The leaderless Reds with no chain of command, facing German veterans utterly failed to breach any lines. By the 30th, the Germans recaptured Okeroinen and began encircling the Red forces at Hennala. On May 1st, after suffering 600 casualties, the Reds fled the city leaving behind 30,000 refugees, many of whom were their family members. The German and Whites only suffered 84 deaths.

The Reds established a new capital at Viipuri on April 9th, defended by roughly 5,000 Red soldiers and 7,000 armed refugees, led by Colonel Oskar Rantala. The White Army formed an 18,300-man-strong Eastern Army, consisting of 3 regiments under the overall command of Major General Ernst Löfström. The attack began on the 19th encircling Viipuri from the west, north and east. On the 23rd, Colonel Aufeld cut the Petrograd railway in Raivola, severing Viipuri from the RSFSR. That night the Red General staff ordered all forces in the Karelian front to pull back into the city as the Red Government fled for Petrograd by sea. Then the last remaining Red leader, Edvard Gylling, divided the forces into 3 units to defend the northern, western and eastern approaches to Viipuri. On the 24th, Colonel Ulrich von Coler led a company to capture the last 3 railway stations leaving the only escape by sea. That night underground White forces activated, seizing the artillery fort at Patterinmäki Hill and many governmental buildings, but were unable to hold them and surrendered the following morning. On the 25th the White regiments simultaneously stormed the city, with their conscription suffering heavy casualties. At noon on the 27th, White artillery destroyed the Patterinmäki Fort allowing them to gradually take the city fighting street to street until the 29th, whence 1000 Reds managed to break out of the siege losing 500 in the process. The Whites forces had suffered 400 deaths with up to 1000 wounded, the Reds had suffered roughly 500 deaths, without similar wounded. After taking the city the Whites executed 1200 suspected Reds, including 420 Russians at the Annenkrone fort. This is known as the Viipuri Massacre.

The Red government was now exiled in Petrograd as Red troops and refugees were encircled by White and German forces. The Red Guards made last stands at Kouvola and Kotka, but by May 15th, the war ended when White forces captured Fort Ino, a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus, from the Russian troops. There was no armistice nor credible negotiations between the Whites and Reds. It is estimated the White Guards suffered 3,414 deaths and the Reds 5,199, with tens of thousands on both sides wounded due to combat. Both the Whites and Reds performed terror campaigns seeing the execution and death to prison camps of 1,424 Whites and 7,370 Reds. Altogether the civil war saw nearly 40,000 die, 15,000 children were orphaned, tens of thousands were sent into prison camps or fled the country.

In late 1917, the Entente stockpiled war materials in Archangel and Murmansk under guard of the British North Russia Squadron. Following the German invasion of the RSFSR in February 1918 and the German-White Finnish capture of Pechenga, the RSFSR requested the Entente powers land forces in Murmansk to aid them. An international contingent, led by Lt General Frederick Poole, began landing in North Russia on March 4th. The British supported the Red Army against the White Finns, recapturing Pechenga by May 11th. However, Soviet-Entente relations swiftly turned from distrust to open hostility as the Red Army began fighting to regain control over the Murmansk-Petrograd railway. After the armistice of November 11th, re-establishing the Eastern Front became irrelevant, prompting the Entente to support a White Russia restoration.

On August 2nd, 1918, White Russian Forces led by Captain Georgi Chaplin staged a coup in Archangel in coordination with the Entente who landed 1500 French and British forces under fire to quickly capture the city. A Northern Region Government was erected under Chaplin and on 17th the Entente began an offensive south along the Archangel-Vologda railway. Meanwhile, an Entente naval force began navigating and fighting Soviet gunboats along the Vaga and Northern Dvina. By 1919 Shenkursk, Vysokaya and Nizhnyaya were the southernmost positions held by the Entente. Despite this in late May Britain landed the 3500 man strong North Russian Relief Force who launched a desperate offensive against the key city of Kotlas, hoping to link up with the Kolchak White force in Siberia. However Kolchak’s men were pushed back, forcing the offensive to be canceled. By July nearly all the non-British troops had departed North Russia and on the 20th, 3,000 White Russians mutinied at the key city of Onega, handing it over to the Reds. While withdrawing, a final offensive on the Dvina and Murmansk front was launched in August aimed at destroying enough Red forces to give the Whites a chance at victory. In September the Red Army attacked Archangel and Murmansk from all sides as the last Entente troops departed on September 27th and on October 12th. Without the Entente support the White Russian Northern Army collapses under Red Army offensives by December of 1919.

On October 14th, 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, establishing borders. However, a movement sprang up in Eastern Karelia, secretly supported by Finland who dealt them arms. On November 6th, 1921, the rebels began taking up positions in Repola. 20,000 Red Russians and Finns led by Major General Alexander Sedyakin attacked them in December, easily pushing the rebels over the Finnish border. Hundreds of casualties were incurred on both sides as 30,000 East Karelians fled for Finland. It was to be the last battle of the northern front. Against incredible odds, the RSFSR had survived a possible German-Finnish invasion and an Entente-White Russian insurrection, solidifying her control over the north.

The Soviet Government managed to endure this tumultuous period, although they achieved few lasting victories between 1917 and 1921. They successfully secured Ukraine and Belarus but were unable to subdue Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, or Poland. The Caucasus region was split between the Turks, who took parts of Georgia, and the Soviets, who unified Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federalist Republic. This Republic was soon incorporated into the newly formed United Soviet Socialist Republics. In Central Asia, the Soviets established three republics, which were also absorbed into the USSR. The Bukharan, Khorezmian, and Abkhazian Republics were short-lived but emerged from the remnants of the former Central Asian territories of the Imperial government. The Soviet government continued to combat the White Russians until 1922, when an uneasy peace finally settled over the ruins of the old Empire. The disintegration of the Tsar’s realm was a violent process that lasted over five years. During this time, millions of people, primarily civilians, lost their lives, and many more were displaced. New governments emerged, exhibiting varying degrees of support and hostility toward their citizens, while others struggled to survive. Eastern Europe eventually found peace, albeit years later than the rest of the continent in resolving its conflicts.

These wars significantly accelerated the professionalization of the Red Army during its early years. In March 1918, Leon Trotsky was appointed to oversee the establishment of the Red Army. His push for a permanent military force contradicted established Marxist ideology, which theoretically opposed all state institutions, including the military. Trotsky's vigor and innovative approach as the People’s Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs were crucial in the early development of the Red Army. He was not alone in this task; Stalin also played a significant role in the party's efforts to build the army. Although he often opposed Trotsky, he wielded considerable authority and used it to shape the army according to his preferences, placing his allies in key positions whenever possible.

The Red Army wasn't established overnight; rather, it developed gradually throughout the 1920s. Initially, it consisted of a large group of undisciplined and politically unreliable troops who had combat experience but lacked a coherent command structure. There was minimal organization, a scarcity of professional leaders, and limited intellectual diversity among the top ranks. Addressing these challenges required considerable time and effort from the state, along with the collaboration of the army's most capable individuals. This transformation occurred through various events, influenced by multiple factors that contributed to the Army's professionalization. 

The leadership vacuum that emerged at the onset of the civil war enabled junior officers and relatively inexperienced young men to ascend to prominent positions, breaking the intellectual stagnation that had developed within the upper ranks of the Imperial Army. This influx of new talent in the officer corps facilitated the introduction of innovative ideas regarding warfare throughout the institution. As a result, individuals like Tukhachevsky, Rokossovsky, Zhukov, Vasilevsky, and Timoshenko were able to showcase their abilities. All of these figures would eventually achieve the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. Their intellectual insights and personal leadership were crucial for the future of the Red Army. The fact that many of these future Marshals had previously served as Non-Commissioned Officers in the Imperial Army was not coincidental. Trotsky had implemented a policy of actively recruiting them as junior officers, believing they embodied the Marxist ideal of humble social backgrounds while also possessing essential practical experience in military leadership and management.

The second key factor that significantly contributed to the professionalization of the Red Army in the 1920s was its comprehensive reorganization led by Trotsky, Stalin, and Mikhail Frunze. A major initiative was the establishment of a general staff-like system called the All-Russian Supreme Staff, which included departments for training, mobilization, topography, logistics, planning, and administration. This body would serve as the highest military authority in the government, with Trotsky at its helm. In 1921, this staff evolved into the Red Army Staff. However, Trotsky's attempts to formalize a command-and-control structure faced criticism for contradicting the fundamental principles of Marxist ideology, primarily from Joseph Stalin. Stalin contended that Trotsky's centralized military bureaucracy was inefficient and disconnected the Army from the people's control. This conflict reached a peak in March 1919 during the eighth Party Congress in Moscow, where delegates debated the Army's organization for three days, resulting in a stalemate. Trotsky was permitted to maintain his system, but it was subjected to several reforms, the most crucial of which was the enhancement of political oversight over the All-Russian Supreme Staff. From then on, commissars would jointly evaluate all officer candidates alongside representatives from the personnel department of the All-Russian Supreme Staff, ensuring political control over the officer corps and fostering loyalty to the regime. Following this, the existence of the General Staff was seldom questioned, with further discussions focusing on the extent of political control within the staff and the Army's role in the state.

The third factor contributing to the Red Army's increasing professionalization during this period was the abandonment of the militia system as a peacetime substitute for the regular army established to fight in the civil war. Mikhail Frunze and Mikhail Tukhachevsky emerged as the main opponents of a militia-based military. Although Trotsky had previously supported a regular army, he now advocated for the militia. Demobilization of the Army began as early as 1921, creating a backdrop for fierce internal conflicts regarding the army's future structure as an institution. These conflicts were primarily political in nature. Trotsky sought to counter the rising influence of Stalin and his supporters while also addressing the demands of military leaders who favored a regular army. Ultimately, he failed on both counts. Stalin rose to power, eventually ousting Trotsky, and the Army was regularized, though in a mixed form for several years. Beginning in 1922, the Red Army began receiving regular budget allocations and approval for a formal organizational structure. This structure would undergo several changes in the following years, as the army became a tool for political maneuvering. Overall, the Red Army remained stable from this point until the purges of the 1930s, which will be discussed shortly.

The final significant factor is the early collaboration between the Red Army and its German counterpart, the Reichswehr. This partnership went beyond mere observation of military maneuvers or technical advice; it evolved into a deeply rooted policy initiative for both governments. Their cooperation included the development of equipment, tactics, and even industrial capabilities, affecting all three branches of their respective militaries and becoming a crucial aspect of the narrative surrounding the Second World War. This army-level collaboration began in the early 1920s, reaching its peak with the establishment of a joint armored warfare school at Kama in 1926. This institution became the foundation for the Soviet and German theories of mobile warfare, which were developed during the interwar period and later implemented with devastating effectiveness in the Second World War.

In addition to the Red Army, the Russian Civil War led to the establishment of the Red Air Force and the conversion of the Imperial Navy into the Red Navy. The civil war primarily involved ground battles, resulting in minimal involvement from the other two branches. The Red Air Force had been nominally established shortly after the October Revolution, but its presence was limited, with fewer than 350 operational aircraft available in 1919. Although there were hundreds more in reserve, many lacked engines or were deemed unserviceable for various reasons. By 1924, this situation began to improve. A joint training school for pilots was established with the Germans in Lipetsk, transforming the small, outdated airfield into a modern facility complete with hangars, repair shops, and even a hospital. The collaboration between the Red Air Force and Germany proved beneficial for both parties. Eventually, Junkers set up a large factory in the suburbs of Moscow for producing aircraft engines and airframes. However, this partnership faced challenges, and Junkers withdrew from the agreement by 1926. Nonetheless, the mere existence of this collaboration highlighted the extent to which both air forces and their governments were striving to work together.

The reorganization of the Red Airforce commenced in earnest in 1924, emphasizing a clear distinction between frontline operations and rear administrative roles, which included specialized commands for naval and land-based aviation. The land-based aviation structure was to be split into 'strategic' and 'Corps' commands. The strategic command would oversee interceptors, heavy and light bombers, and reconnaissance units, while the Corps command would concentrate on army collaboration, tactical reconnaissance, and artillery observation. The naval aspect was intended to incorporate interceptor, reconnaissance, and mine-laying squadrons. Establishing this new structure took time, but efforts to address manpower and equipment issues were pursued vigorously.

The Navy garnered immediate attention following the October Revolution, largely due to the pivotal role its sailors played in the power takeover. However, this attention was limited to the Bolshevik officials taking control of the Navy's structures to maintain political oversight over its members and avert any potential uprisings against the regime. Significant reforms aimed at transforming the Navy would not be pursued until well after the civil war, focusing on removing unreliable Imperial officers and dismantling the old control systems. Additionally, efforts would concentrate on shaping the enlisted sailors into a disciplined force. In 1924, these reforms began in earnest, primarily concerning personnel decisions and command structures, as budget constraints hindered more extensive changes at that time. The foremost priority was to reestablish political reliability.

As part of a broader initiative to politicize the military, doctrinal discussions commenced, reflecting the political implications seen in Army debates. Within the Red Navy, two schools of thought emerged, paralleling the ongoing militia versus standing army discussions. The traditional school, comprising some former Tsarist officers and older Bolsheviks, advocated for a large navy inspired by American theorist Alfred Thayer Mahan. Alfred Thayan Mahan was a turn of the century American Naval theorist who popularized the idea of the decisive role of the fleet battle in naval affairs. Over time the big-gun battleship fleet as the tool for the decisive battle came to represent Mahan’s ideas. His work was influenced by Jomini’s conception of strategic points and by British naval history. His ideas were developed and put into practice by all of the major combatants in WW1. They believed that a powerful fleet of battleships focused on decisive battles would allow the revolution to spread globally while countering challenges to Soviet naval supremacy.

In contrast, the young school firmly opposed these ideas. Influenced by the French Jeune d’École and British naval historian Julian Corbett, they contended that achieving control of the high seas, as suggested by Mahan, was unattainable. The Jeune d’Ecole doctrine (literally the young school) was a doctrinal movement in French Naval circles that was centered around commerce raiding rather than the decisive battle as proposed by Mahan. Julian Corbett developed a theory of naval power that centered on the control of shipping lanes both in the offensive and defensive manners. Corbett was influenced by the Juene Ecole and popularized the idea of commerce raiding in smaller navies around the world. This was represented by the Kriegsmarine’s attempt at commerce raiding in WW2, as seen in the construction of the Panzerschiff and the later Battlecruisers Gneisenau and Scharnhorst. Instead, they argued that the Soviet Navy should aim to secure control over the critical maritime approaches to its ports. The narrow passages of the Baltic Sea were ideal for the smaller, lighter raiding vessels favored by the young school. By 1930, the debate reached a conclusion. Tukhachevsky, as chief of staff of the Red Army, strongly backed the young school, and his influence prevailed. However, this victory came at a significant cost: the new Red Navy would be entirely subordinated to the Army, lacking the status of a first-class power and being dependent on the Army for budgets, strategic priorities, and operational matters. While the young school achieved their desired doctrine, their Navy was now required to serve the interests of the Army.

Efforts to initiate a technical overhaul of the Navy began in 1925, including outreach to the German Navy for support. In 1926, German and Soviet officers established a technical collaboration focused on submarine command, construction, and engine development. Later that year, a German naval mission visited the Soviet Navy and its facilities, marking a significant step in cooperation between the two navies and leading to the transfer of several U-boat designs. This German mission in 1926 was reciprocated in 1930 with a tour of Germany’s latest naval innovation, the Panzerschiff A. Panzerschiff A was a secret project of the German navy to develop a raiding cruiser. Panzerschiff A became the KMS Deutschland, before being renamed to the KMS Lutzow. The Royal Navy would dub the Deutschland class ships “pocket battleships” for their large caliber main armament, relatively small size and high speed. These developments reflected the strengthening ties between the Soviet and German militaries, laying the foundation for increased cooperation between their governments in the following decade.

I would like to take this time to remind you all that this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Please go subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry after that, give my personal channel a look over at The Pacific War Channel at Youtube, it would mean a lot to me.

Following the Russian Revolution and World War I, the Russian Civil War erupted, with independence movements arising across the former empire. This led to conflicts in Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Finland. The Red Army emerged and underwent professionalization through leadership changes, reorganization, and collaboration with Germany.

Eastern Front Prelude # 0.1 The Russian Revolution

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more  so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

The eastern front is ompf. One could describe it as a cataclysm of competing ideologies, armies and unimaginable human suffering. The scale of the horror defies comprehension, millions were thrown into a meat grinder, fueled by totalitarian brutality. Cities were burned, bodies were frozen, entire swathes of peoples were ground into dust.

For those of you coming here from the Fall and Rise of China Podcast, Pacific War week by week podcast or Echoes of war, well welcome back folks. For you newbies, my name is Craig, I specialize in the Pacific War, a pretty comparable theater in terms of human suffering. I am by no means a specialist on the Eastern Front of WW2, like many of you I too will be an avid learner as we tackle this fascinating and tragic part of history week by week. However, to toss you right into operation barbarossa would be pretty rough to say the least, we need a basis for how the Eastern front came to be, thus prelude episodes everybody!

 

This episode is Prelude #1 The Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War.

In the early 20th century, Russia was a vast empire grappling with profound social, political, and economic turmoil. The seeds of discontent were sown in the late 19th century, as rapid industrialization transformed the country. Factories sprang up, drawing peasants from the countryside into the cities, where they faced grueling working conditions, low wages, and long hours. The burgeoning urban working class began to organize, inspired by revolutionary ideas and the promise of a better life. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a catalyst for violent revolution. Russia's defeat by Japan, a nation often viewed as inferior, shattered the myth of Russian superiority and exposed the weaknesses of the Tsarist regime. The war drained resources and morale, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among soldiers and civilians alike. As the war dragged on, food shortages and rising prices fueled anger, and the populace began to demand change.

On January 22, 1905, a pivotal event known as "Bloody Sunday" ignited the revolution. A peaceful march led by Father Gapon, a priest advocating for workers' rights, aimed to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II. The marchers, carrying icons and singing hymns, were met with gunfire from the imperial guard. Hundreds were killed or wounded, and the massacre shocked the nation. This brutal response turned many Russians against the Tsar, who had previously been seen as a paternal figure.

In the wake of Bloody Sunday, strikes erupted across the country, and revolutionary fervor spread like wildfire. Workers, peasants, and even soldiers began to organize into councils known as "soviets." These grassroots organizations demanded better working conditions, land reforms, and political representation. The unrest was not limited to the cities; rural areas saw peasant uprisings as landless farmers sought to claim land from wealthy landowners. The Tsar, realizing the gravity of the situation, issued the October Manifesto, which promised civil liberties and the establishment of a legislative assembly, the Duma. However, the reforms were half-hearted and failed to satisfy the growing demands for genuine political change. The Duma was limited in power, and the Tsar retained significant authority, leading to further disillusionment among the populace.

As the revolution waned, the underlying issues remained unresolved. The social and economic inequalities persisted, and the political landscape was still dominated by autocracy. The revolution of 1905 did not bring about the sweeping changes many had hoped for, but it set the stage for future upheaval. The discontent simmered beneath the surface, creating a volatile environment that would ultimately contribute to the larger and more violent Russian Revolution of 1917. By the time World War I erupted in 1914, Russia was a nation on the brink. The unresolved grievances from the 1905 revolution, coupled with the strains of war, would lead to a catastrophic collapse of the Tsarist regime. The events of 1905 were a harbinger of the profound changes that lay ahead, marking a significant turning point in Russian history and the eventual rise of revolutionary movements that would reshape the nation forever.

In the summer of 1914, as Europe plunged into the Great War, Russia found itself thrust into the Eastern Front, a vast and sprawling battlefield stretching over 1,600 kilometers. Tsar Nicholas II's empire, eager to expand its influence in the Balkans, mobilized its massive army, totaling 115 infantry and 38 cavalry divisions, against both Germany and Austria-Hungary. Initially, Russia's strategy was aggressive, launching offensives into East Prussia against the Germans and Galicia against the Austro-Hungarians. In East Prussia, General Yakov Zhilinsky, with superior numbers, aimed for a swift victory. However, the Germans, under the command of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, orchestrated a devastating counterattack at the Battle of Tannenberg, encircling and annihilating General Aleksandr Samsonov’s Second Army. Samsonov, overwhelmed by the defeat, committed suicide.

Meanwhile, in Galicia, the Russian armies achieved initial successes against Austria-Hungary, capturing Lemberg and collapsing the Austro-Hungarian front. However, these victories were short-lived. Germany, recognizing the vulnerability of its ally, transferred forces to the east, and with combined efforts, pushed the Russians back towards Warsaw. As 1915 dawned, the Eastern Front transformed into a brutal war of attrition. Despite staggering losses, Tsar Nicholas II refused to negotiate peace, instead taking personal command of the Russian forces. The Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive, launched by the Central Powers, resulted in massive Russian territorial losses and casualties, but failed to knock Russia out of the war. In 1916, the situation worsened for Russia. The Brusilov Offensive, a desperate attempt to relieve pressure on the Western Front and Italy, initially achieved spectacular gains against Austria-Hungary. However, lacking reserves and facing counterattacks led by German General Alexander von Linsingen, the offensive stalled, resulting in catastrophic casualties. 

By January of 1917 Russia had suffered 6 million casualties. Instead of improving the situation, entering the great war exacerbated all the underlying problems of the ailing empire and caused such a slaughter of her people it would help usher in another revolution. The military, now filled with peasants, the working class, and political radicals, had lost faith in the Tsar. The liberal-dominated Duma persistently urged the Tsar to implement constitutional reforms, but he consistently refused. Having alienated the common people, the military, and the elites, the Tsar found himself without allies. By 1917, millions of war refugees had poured in from German-occupied areas, leaving the home front in disarray. During her 17 months in power, the Tsarina oversaw the appointment of four Prime Ministers, five Ministers of the Interior, three War Ministers, three Foreign Ministers, four Ministers of Agriculture, and three Ministers of Transport. The public sensed that famine was imminent. The situation became so dire that Mikhail Rodzianko, the president of the Duma, along with Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna and British ambassador Sir George Buchanan, jointly recommended that the Tsarina be removed from decision-making, but the Tsar ignored their advice. With Rasputin dead, it became evident to everyone that the Tsar and Tsarina were the real issues.

On March 3rd, workers at the Putilov Factory, the largest plant in Petrograd, announced a strike. Meanwhile, tens of thousands of train cars filled with food and coal were stranded on the tracks as the Tsar left for the front on March 7th. The following day, strikers celebrated International Women’s Day, leading to bread riots throughout the city. Women marched from factory to factory, urging workers to join the strike, and soon their numbers swelled to 50,000. Men and women filled the streets, demanding an end to the war and the monarchy. By the next day, their ranks had grown to 200,000, and by the 10th, nearly all industries in Petrograd had come to a halt. Alarmed, the Tsar sent a telegram to General Khabalov, the commander of the Petrograd garrison, ordering him to disperse the rioters by force. Although there were about 180,000 troops available in Petrograd, most were either untrained or wounded. Only 12,000 were deemed reliable, but they hesitated to act against the protestors, many of whom were women. Some troops refused to cooperate, opting to hide, while a few even joined the rioters. In the afternoon, the 4th company of the Pavlovsky Reserve Regiment engaged in a firefight with mounted police until they were disarmed by the Preobrazhensky Regiment. This marked the first instance of open mutiny within the Petrograd garrison. Rodzianko informed the Tsar of the situation, prompting the Tsar to dissolve the Duma and appoint Alexander Protopopov as dictator.

The following day, 25,000 soldiers occupied the Duma, where some delegates formed a Provisional Committee led by Rodzianko. They immediately demanded Protopopov's resignation and dissolved the Council of Ministers. That night, General Khabalov confronted a city overrun by revolutionaries who were burning buildings, looting, arming themselves from the arsenal, and freeing prisoners. The majority of the garrison mutinied, joining the revolutionaries and distributing over 40,000 rifles to them. Several government buildings were set ablaze, insubordinate troops were shot, and many either hid or sided with the rioters, leading to the collapse of the garrison's ability to restore order. On the 12th, the Provisional Committee declared itself the governing body of the empire in an effort to restore law and order. At the same time, socialist political parties re-established the Petrograd Soviet to represent soldiers and workers. The Tsar attempted to leave Mogilev the next day but was unable to reach Petrograd due to revolutionary control of the railway stations. On the 14th, the Tsar arrived in Pskov and, under strong advice, abdicated the throne. The next day, Rodzianko formed the Provisional Government in collaboration with the Petrograd Soviet, despite opposition from the Bolsheviks. At 3 PM, Nicholas II nominated his brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, to take the throne, but he declined, knowing he would lack support. On the 16th, the Romanov dynasty officially came to an end. Most of the Romanov family sought refuge in Alexander Palace under the protective custody of the new Provisional Government.

The Russian autocracy transformed into a system of "dual power," shared between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. The Provisional Government was mainly made up of former liberal and conservative Duma members who were not elected by the populace, leading to perceptions of its illegitimacy. To gain more formal authority, they included some representatives from the Petrograd Soviet, such as the moderate socialist Alexander Kerensky. Concerned about the increasing influence of the Petrograd Soviet, they attempted to appease it with minor reforms while firmly insisting on continuing the war, a stance opposed by the Petrograd Soviet. The Petrograd Soviet considered itself a quasi-shadow government, advocating for the needs of disenfranchised workers and soldiers. All its members were socialists, predominantly Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries, with fewer Bolsheviks. They promised to withdraw Russia from the war if they gained power. Workers and soldiers, believing that the Petrograd Soviet would provide food, land, and peace, began to elect deputies in large numbers, significantly increasing membership. Among its executive committee was the Socialist Revolutionary Alexander Kerensky, a popular figure within the military.

The Petrograd Soviet criticized the Provisional Government, labeling it as bourgeois and boasting about their de facto power over the government’s de jure authority. They controlled major railway stations, telegraph networks, and strategic infrastructure, using these resources to exert pressure. In June 1917, a Bolshevization of the Soviets began, with the Bolsheviks leveraging their newspaper, Pravda, for a robust propaganda campaign. As time went on, political distinctions blurred as more Soviet-based parties joined the Provisional Government.

 

To further escalate the situation, Erich von Ludendorff facilitated Vladimir Lenin's return from exile in Zürich to Petrograd. At the Finland Station on April 16th, Lenin delivered a speech denouncing the Provisional Government and urging the Soviets to seize power. However, the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries believed that Russia was not yet ready to transition to a communist regime. In the following days, Lenin participated in Bolshevik meetings, denouncing attempts to reconcile with the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries who supported the Provisional Government. He argued that the Provisional Government was merely a continuation of the old Tsarist regime and called for an immediate peace with the central powers, advocating for the Soviets to establish a communist government. Sensing frustration among the Bolsheviks, Lenin proposed an armed political demonstration to gauge the government's reaction.

The Bolsheviks initiated an uprising from July 3 to 7, referred to as the “July Days.” On July 11, Alexander Kerensky was appointed Prime Minister of the Provisional Government and employed military force to suppress the uprising, resulting in hundreds of deaths in the streets. Lenin fled to Finland to avoid arrest, while Trotsky and other socialist leaders were detained. Following the crackdown, a significant rift developed between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The Bolsheviks promised to end the war if they gained power, appealing strongly to soldiers and urban workers. A clear divide emerged not only between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviets but also within the military, which increasingly leaned towards the Bolsheviks in their desire to end the war. Although the uprising was unsuccessful, the Bolsheviks experienced substantial growth in membership, soon surpassing the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. Kerensky appointed General Lavr Kornilov as the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army, hoping to create a more unified government. Kornilov aimed to eliminate any signs of revolution, particularly those associated with the Bolsheviks.

On September 4, General Kornilov, mistakenly believing that radicals were seizing control of the Provisional Government, ordered the army to subdue Petrograd. Kerensky attempted to prevent this by sending a telegram to dismiss Kornilov and instructing him not to advance on the city, but his efforts were futile, as Kornilov seemed intent on establishing a military dictatorship. Faced with a significant threat and lacking sufficient troops to defend Petrograd, Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks. Together, they formed the Committee for the Struggle Against Counterrevolution to protect Petrograd. Their success was largely due to the Bolsheviks' control of railways and telegraphs, which disrupted Kornilov’s coup. However, Kerensky armed the Bolsheviks and released prisoners like Leon Trotsky, making them appear as heroes to the public and positioning them as the primary opposition to the Provisional Government, while the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries hesitated to break from the national unity movement. Additionally, military officers and conservatives felt betrayed by Kerensky’s handling of Kornilov, rendering his Provisional Government ineffective.

On September 14th, Kerensky announced the establishment of the first Russian Republic, while the Bolsheviks began seizing control of major cities. During September and October, mass strikes erupted among urban workers in Petrograd and Moscow, as well as among metalworkers in the Urals, miners in the Donbas, oil workers in Baku, textile workers in the Central Industrial Region, and railway workers across over 44 railway lines. Peasants initiated uprisings in three-quarters of the country, losing faith that the Mensheviks or Social Revolutionaries could provide them with land. Garrisons in major cities, at the war fronts, and the Baltic Fleet no longer acknowledged the authority of the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks secured a majority in the Petrograd Soviet, and Trotsky was elected chairman on October 8th. Aligning with Lenin against other factions, Trotsky voted for a military uprising on October 10th. He established a revolutionary military committee that systematically occupied key locations in Petrograd. However, Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev leaked this information, prompting Kerensky to take action on November 6th.

Kerensky deployed soldiers to shut down Bolshevik newspaper offices, announcing their immediate closure. The Bolsheviks condemned these actions, leading to sporadic clashes between Kerensky’s loyalist forces and Bolshevik militias, such as the Red Guards. The following day, the Bolsheviks launched an uprising in Petrograd, supported by a pro-Bolshevik flotilla in the harbor. The Red Guards methodically seized government buildings, railway stations, communication hubs, and other strategic points throughout the city. The Petrograd garrison and most local military units sided with the insurgents, leaving Kerensky and the Provisional Government isolated and unable to mount a significant defense. Kerensky fled Petrograd as Lenin declared the overthrow of the Provisional Government.

By the end of the year, Moscow, Sevastopol, Rostov, and many other cities had come under the control of the new Soviet Government. The October Revolution unfolded and concluded within just a few days. Within weeks, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was formed. The government's immediate focus was on addressing domestic challenges, leading to a rapid implementation of reforms. The next step was to secure peace. In December 1917, negotiations commenced in the German-occupied city of Brest-Litovsk but faced delays until Trotsky announced to his fellow delegates that the war was over. “Our relationship with the imperialistic governments of both sides is the same, and we are no longer willing to shed our soldiers’ blood for the interests of one side over the other. We are leading our army and our people out of the war, in anticipation of an imminent time when the oppressed peoples of all countries will take their fate into their own hands, in the way that Russian workers have done. Our soldiers, once farm workers, must return to the land, which the revolution has taken out of the hands of the landowners and placed into peasant hands so that he can till the land peacefully this spring. Our industrial soldier must return to his workshop to produce weapons of production, rather than weapons of destruction, and together with the farmer build a new socialist economy.”Russia would not sign a treaty but also would not engage in further fighting, and the army was instructed to demobilize.

The Germans were taken aback by this turn of events, but they were determined to advance the front line as far as possible to compel the Soviets to agree to a treaty. The assault commenced almost immediately, encountering little to no resistance as they moved forward. The rest of the Baltic states fell rapidly, bringing the Germans close to the capital. Fearing the collapse of their fledgling state, the Soviets panicked and sent requests for terms. Nevertheless, the Germans continued their advance, aiming to secure leverage for a more severe treaty. Finally, on February 23, 1918, they presented their terms. The Soviet government, recognizing they had no alternative, agreed without hesitation.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk proved catastrophic for the future USSR. It resulted in Russia losing 34% of its population, 54% of its industry, 90% of its Coal, and 26% of its railways. Finland, Ukraine. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Belarus became independent. None of the Allies acknowledged the Soviet government in Petrograd; instead, they opted to support the former Provisional Government. Supporters of the Provisional Government and the old Tsarist regime, along with other adversaries of the Bolsheviks, loosely formed a coalition known as the White Russians. The White Forces consisted of supporters from every corner of the old empire. Socialist opposition to the Bolsheviks, Tsarists, independence movements, Allied forces, and even the Germans cooperated to the common goal of eliminating the new Soviet Government.  The Soviet's separate peace with the Germans bolstered Allied support for the White forces. Viewing this as a failure of Russia’s treaty obligations, the Allies decided to intervene in its internal matters. By May, Allied troops had landed in Murmansk and Vladivostok, with the US Army eventually deploying several thousand soldiers to Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok. Initially, these forces were welcomed as a safeguard against further German intervention following the treaty's signing. However, within months, clashes erupted between the Allied detachments and the newly established Red Army, leading to prolonged fighting.

Initially, the White forces were quite disorganized. Local factions leaned towards independence, and the support from the Allies was never as robust as the White forces required. Over time, multiple centers of resistance emerged. General Anton Denikin took command of the White Russian forces in the south, with his support base located around the Black and Caspian Seas. In the north, General Yevgeny Miller operated from Arkhangelsk, while General Nikolai Yudenich was positioned in Helsinki in the northwest. In 1919, these three leaders would unite to provide support for Admiral Alexander Kolchak's Supreme Command. This organized resistance functioned as a shadow government until its near collapse in 1920, although fighting persisted until 1922. 

For Germany, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk turned out to be a major mistake. The occupied territories necessitated the presence of over one million soldiers in the east, which hindered the full deployment of troops to the western front as originally intended. Since the war began, food shortages had been a persistent issue for Germany and Austria-Hungary, and there were hopes that territorial gains in the east would help alleviate this problem. However, these expectations were unrealistic, as meaningful exports could not be established overnight from a region ravaged by war and turmoil. As a result, in 1918, the Central Powers faced growing unrest at home. There was a consensus that the war needed to end soon, but the pressing question was how to achieve that outcome in their favor.

Eager to bring the war to a close, Germany launched a spring offensive. On March 21, 1918, the "Michael" offensive commenced, with the German 17th, 2nd, and 18th Armies attacking along a front stretching from the Somme to Flanders. The divisions involved had been specially trained and chosen for this assault, targeting relatively unprepared British troops from the 3rd and 5th Armies. Although the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) anticipated the offensive, they had not adequately prepared for it. In the first week, the German forces made significant tactical advances, pushing nearly to Amiens. At this stage of the conflict, around ten thousand American soldiers were arriving at the front each day, a number the German Army could not match. For every British soldier taken out of action, an American was ready to step in. The offensive began to lose momentum as it entered its second week, and on April 5, General Ludendorff called it off. The operation lasted only fifteen days, resulting in over two hundred thousand casualties for Germany, who gained just forty miles of territory. While the BEF and the French Army suffered losses, they could replace their troops much more rapidly than the Germans. The British and French reserves totaled around two hundred thousand men, not including the increasing American forces. In contrast, the Germans could only muster about sixty thousand replacements for the units involved in the Michael offensive, leading to a growing disparity in troop strength.

Warnings were plentiful that the troops were nearing the limits of their strength. Since March, the German Army had incurred approximately a million casualties across all fronts, with only seven hundred thousand men arriving as replacements. Nevertheless, Ludendorff remained unconvinced and initiated four additional offensives, further depleting Germany's already limited reserves. By late July, the German Army had exhausted its resources completely. The situation was critical, and the balance of power on the Western Front had clearly shifted in favor of the Allies. The defeat of Russia had not alleviated the issues in the West. German troops were exhibiting significant indiscipline, with division commanders expressing concerns to higher command about the troops' quality and fighting spirit. Looting by German soldiers became rampant, and the peace movement at home was increasingly difficult to overlook.

On August 8, the Allies launched the offensive that would ultimately conclude the war in the West. The Hundred Days Offensive saw millions of front-line troops advancing along the entire front. The American Expeditionary Force attacked in the St. Mihiel sector, while the British Expeditionary Force, along with Belgian and French forces, engaged in their respective areas. The following weeks showcased a brutal attritional warfare, resulting in some of the highest casualties of the entire conflict.

 

Under the mounting pressure, Ludendorff finally broke. His armies were unable to withstand the Allies’ offensive. By mid-September, the Bulgarians had collapsed, leaving the southern flank of the Central Powers vulnerable. Faced with this situation, the once-unyielding Ludendorff informed the Kaiser that the war needed to come to an end. He even proposed that the Social Democrats be granted power in the government. Consequently, Kaiser Wilhelm II appointed Prince Max von Baden as Chancellor. Baden, who had been an opposition figure since the war began, was surprised to be entrusted with such authority. On October 4, he sent the first serious peace overture, directly asking President Wilson for an armistice. Discussions continued throughout October. Meanwhile, the German army was suffering severe losses in Belgium. However, Ludendorff approached the Kaiser, advocating for the continuation of the war and the dismissal of Baden. He based his argument on the lofty notion of maintaining resistance if the armies could retreat to the German border in an orderly fashion. In reality, he had experienced a physical and mental breakdown in September when he first suggested peace to the Kaiser. A few weeks later, having regained some strength and confidence, he attempted to reassert his authority and influence over the Kaiser, hoping to have Baden removed. Instead, Ludendorff was dismissed, although his longtime ally, Hindenburg, retained his position.

The Kaiser had not yet succeeded in removing the war faction from his cabinet. The Navy High Command made a final attempt to fight back. On November 3rd, sailors revolted when ordered to set sail for a last confrontation with the Royal Navy. This sparked widespread unrest and protests in Kiel and later in Lubeck. On November 10th, the Kaiser abdicated and fled to the neutral Netherlands. However, his abdication was largely symbolic, as representatives from the Reichstag had already declared Germany a republic on the 9th. Delegates were sent to negotiate an armistice, and a provisional government was established, with a peace treaty to follow. The war was effectively over for Germany. Friedrich Ebert was appointed as the new leader of the government, but he faced an escalating crisis as communist and other far-left groups sought to seize power. Right-wing factions also remained active. Violent clashes erupted across Germany as both far-right and far-left movements vied for influence. It wasn't until August 1919 that a new constitution was adopted. This marked the beginning of a return to stability in Germany under the Weimar Republic, as the constitution aimed to provide a compromise that facilitated a democratic process to address the conflicts between the political extremes. However, both sides continued to resort to violence to achieve their goals for some time. Eventually, within a generation, election campaigning would become the favored method for gaining political power in Germany.

The rest of Europe officially concluded the First World War on November 11, 1918, with the signing of the Armistice, which effectively ended the conflict in the West, even though the Treaty of Versailles would not be finalized until June 1919. The war had a devastating impact on all parties involved, particularly for the Central Powers, who faced catastrophic consequences. The monarchies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were all dismantled, with Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire ceasing to exist as nations. Germany was significantly weakened, while Austria-Hungary suffered approximately thirty-eight percent of its soldiers as casualties or prisoners. The Ottoman Empire experienced around fifty percent of its military personnel as casualties during the conflict.

Although the Allies emerged as victors, they did not come out as strong as one might expect. The immense burden of the war inflicted severe damage on all nations involved. World War One drained Europe, from London to Moscow, of a generation of young men. Billions of dollars were invested in the war effort, and the best outcome was that they had not been defeated. France was nominally the dominant land power in the world, with no one able to withstand its armies in 1918. However, reaching this point required nearly all of the country's resources. France lost about seventy percent of the men it recruited during the war as casualties. Britain performed better in relative terms, with nearly fifty percent of its recruits becoming casualties for the British Empire. Russia faced around thirty-five percent of its soldiers as casualties, with millions more captured or unaccounted for. Additionally, countless civilians were caught in the conflict, displaced from their homes or succumbing to starvation.

Europe in 1918 was remarkably different from what it had been in 1914. The most devastating war in history had transformed the continent’s geography, demographics, and politics. A power vacuum emerged in the Balkans as all three major powers collapsed. The Baltic states had also undergone significant changes; Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Finland had not existed in 1914. These nations primarily arose from the remnants of the Russian Empire, with Poland expanding following Germany's downfall. For the first time since the seventeenth century, Ukraine emerged as an independent nation. Germany's military might had completely crumbled. In 1914, the Kaiser’s army was highly regarded and feared as the most capable military force in Europe since the time of Napoleon. Now, it was limited by a treaty to just 100,000 troops, prohibited from having tanks or an air force, and faced little prospect of regaining its former status as the world’s leading military power. The German navy was insignificantly small, with no submarines allowed and a surface fleet reduced to an outdated force that could hardly influence naval affairs anywhere globally.

In 1918, the Russian Army was in utter chaos. While the German Army had been reduced to a small standing force, it still retained a solid core of experienced commissioned and noncommissioned officers. The same could not be said for the newly formed Red Army, where officers were vanishing at an alarming rate due to executions, dismissals, and desertions. Ideological conformity became the main criterion for new appointments, leading to many aristocratic generals being deemed unfit for service. This resulted in a leadership crisis. Despite these challenges, the leaders of the new Russian Soviet government sought to reclaim territories lost during the war. The Treaty of Versailles established a formal peace between the Central Powers and the Allies, but not throughout all of Europe. The Treaty of Versailles resulted in Germany giving up its territorial gains from Brest-Litovsk, as well as cede several important territories to old rivals and new countries alike. Germany lost 12% of its population, 10% of its coal, 48% of its Iron ore, and all of its overseas territories. Its army was to be limited to 100K soldiers and the Navy was limited to 15K sailors with no Air Force allowed. Just two days after the initial Armistice, Lenin’s government rejected the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ensuring that Europe would remain in turmoil. The Soviets were determined to reconquer their lost lands. The Russian Civil War had begun shortly after the October Revolution but had been simmering for months. Now, however, the situation was about to escalate, with wars of reconquest igniting and the Allies increasingly supporting the White Russians.

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By the early 20th century, the Empire of Russia faced absolute turmoil leading to the revolution of 1905. The Tsar did little to change the crumbling empire as they entered WW1. The war went disastrously allowing for another revolution to kick off in 1917. The Bolsheviks seized power, and signed a brutal treaty with the Central Powers who shortly after lost WW1. Within this vacuum now Russia faced a civil war.