Eastern Front Prelude # 0.2 The Russian Civil War

Last time we spoke about the Russian Revolutions and Russia’s experience during WW1.  In the early 20th century, Russia was a crumbling empire. After losing to Japan in 1905, revolution gripped the country, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to make concessions, but it was not enough. When Ww1 erupted in 1914, Russia eagerly joined, but suffered staggering losses. By 1917, the war had exacerbated Russia's internal problems, leading to another revolution. The Tsar was overthrown, and a Provisional Government was established, but it was weak and indecisive. Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and called for the Soviets to seize power. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, launched an uprising in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government. The new Soviet government signed a peace treaty with Germany, ceding vast territories. This triggered a civil war between the Bolsheviks “Red Russians” and their opponents “White Russians”. The Allies intervened, supporting the White Russians, but the Red Army ultimately prevailed, establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.

This episode is Prelude #2 The Russian Civil War

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more  so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

Welcome back to our second prelude episode. In this one we are going to focus on the beginning of the Russian Civil War and the emergence of the Red Army, Navy and Air Force. Following the signing of the Brest-Litovsk treaty, independence movements emerged throughout the former Russian Empire. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine all experienced additional conflicts. I thought the best way to tackle this would be nation by nation for coherency, and who better to start with than Ukraine. 

Ukraine

Following the October Revolution, enemies of Bolshevism united under the White Movement. In the Don region, Generals Mikhail Alekseyev and Lavr Kornilov formed the Volunteer Army. Initially small, they were forced to retreat to the Kuban Cossack Host to avoid annihilation by the Red Guards. The Volunteer Army recruited Kuban Cossacks and attempted to recapture Yekaterinodar, but Kornilov was killed, and General Anton Ivanovich Denikin led a retreat. Peasant revolts against Soviet food requisitioning led to the formation of the Don Cossack Army under General Pyotr Krasnov, who collaborated with the Germans occupying Ukraine. The Germans provided military supplies, and by the fall of 1918, Krasnov's forces fought to reclaim their homeland, while Denikin's forces cleared the Kuban and North Caucasus of Soviet forces.

In January 1919, the Don Cossack Army merged with Denikin's forces to form the Armed Forces of South Russia, incorporating other armies. In the spring, the Volunteer Army launched an offensive, capturing Kharkiv, Kursk, and Oryol by October. Simultaneously, the Caucasian Army, led by Baron Pyotr Wrangel, captured Tsaritsyn. However, a Soviet counterattack in October recaptured Oryol, splitting the White forces and forcing them to retreat south. In February 1920, a Soviet offensive seized the North Caucasus, leading to a disastrous evacuation at Novorossiysk. Many soldiers and civilians were abandoned due to insufficient ships. Denikin handed authority to General Wrangel, who reorganized the forces into the Russian Army, establishing a power base in Crimea. Despite having considerable forces, Wrangel faced challenges in launching an offensive against Moscow.

In response to the February Revolution, the Central Rada was established, led by Mykhailo Hrushevsky. The Rada declared Ukraine autonomous in June 1917 and formed the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) in November. The UPR faced internal revolts and external attacks. Red Guards captured Kharkiv in December, establishing a Ukrainian Soviet Republic (USR). In January 1918, the UPR declared independence from the Russian Soviet and war against the USR. The Red Army advanced towards Kyiv, facing resistance from a small UPR unit at the Battle of Kruty, where many schoolboys were killed. A Bolshevik uprising in Kyiv facilitated the Red Army's capture of the city in February, forcing the UPR government to flee.

In February 1918, the UPR signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, ending its involvement in the Great War and gaining recognition of its sovereignty. In exchange for foodstuff, the Central Powers provided military aid. German and Austro-Hungarian forces, along with the Ukrainian People's Army led by Symon Petliura, pushed the Reds out of Ukraine and recaptured Kyiv in March. They then captured Left Bank Ukraine, Crimea, and the Donets Basin. However, the Central Powers were displeased with the UPR's land nationalization policies. In April, they disbanded the Central Rada, abolished the UPR, and installed the Ukrainian State with Pavlo Skoropadskyi as Hetman. A force under Field Marshall Herman von Eichhorn was established to defend Ukraine from Soviet aggression. The Russian Soviets reluctantly signed a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, recognizing the Ukrainian State and withdrawing their troops. Skoropadskyi's government restored land to wealthy landowners and requisitioned food stocks, leading to an insurgency by former UPR and USR members. Von Eichhorn was assassinated in July. As Germany withdrew troops due to their impending defeat in WW1, a power vacuum emerged, leading to further conflict between the Russian Soviets, USR, UPR, Whites, foreign interventionists, and Anarchists. Petliura led an uprising that collapsed Skoropadskyi's government by October, and Skoropadskyi abdicated in December.

In October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian government collapsed, leading to the formation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR), which sought to unite West Ukraine Lands. In November, Captain Dmytro Vitovsky led the Sich Riflemen to seize Lviv, proclaiming it the capital of the WUPR and sovereignty over Eastern Galicia. This prompted the Second Polish Republic to declare war. The Polish Army captured Lviv in November, and by late November, the Poles controlled the railroad linking Lviv to central Poland, while the Ukrainians controlled the rest of Eastern Galicia. In January 1919, the UPR was reinstated and signed a Unification Act with the WUPR. A battle also emerged over Volhynia. The combined Ukrainian republics outnumbered the Poles, and by February, most of Eastern Galicia was under Ukrainian control. The Entente were divided on whether to support the Polish or Ukrainian claims, but France supported Poland. The Entente sent French General Joseph Barthélemy, who demanded a ceasefire and proposed a demarcation line that favored Ukraine, but the Ukrainians rejected the terms and resumed their offensive. The Poles organized a force that advanced upon Przemyśl in March, driving the Ukrainian forces away and securing Lviv. They then launched an offensive throughout Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, backed by French officers. In May, Romania opened a second front against southeastern Galicia. In June, General Oleksander Hrekov led a Ukrainian counteroffensive, but it drained the army of its ammunition and supplies. Józef Piłsudski assumed command of Polish forces and began a counteroffensive, driving the Ukrainian army and civilians into Central Ukraine. A stalemate emerged as the Treaty of Versailles handed Eastern Galicia to Poland.

After their defeat, Germany withdrew troops from Ukraine, prompting the Russian Soviets to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and launch a full invasion of Ukraine in January 1919. Antonov-Ovseenko led the Red Army with the plan to capture Kharkiv, Kyiv, southern Ukraine, and the Black Sea coast. Germany's withdrawal also opened the Black Sea to the Entente, who dispatched forces to key cities and began aiding Denikin's Volunteer Army. However, they were met by Red forces allied with Otaman Nykyfor Hryhoriv, who seized Kherson in March and advanced upon Odessa. The demoralized Entente forces evacuated, leaving behind military materials. The Red Army then overran most of Eastern and Central Ukraine. Kyiv fell in February, and the USR was installed there, prompting the UPR to retreat into eastern Galicia. Meanwhile, the Red Army's front began to collapse in June 1919 due to heavy fighting in the Donbass and Don Region. Denikin's White Army launched an offensive, taking Kharkov. From late June to August, the White forces seized key cities in Ukraine, including Kyiv on August 31.

Ukraine found itself in a death triangle, at war with Poles, Reds, and Whites. The UPR initiated a guerilla-style Winter Campaign, winning battles against the Reds but failing to seize key cities. Forced into a small area near Polish-controlled territory, the UPR sought help from Poland. In return for military assistance, Petliura agreed to recognize the Polish annexation of Galicia, signing the Treaty of Warsaw with Piłsudski. The UPR and Polish armies launched a joint offensive against Kyiv in April 1920. The Polish 3rd Army overwhelmed the Soviet armies, and Kyiv was taken in May. Soviet General Mikhail Tukhachevsky then launched a counteroffensive, pushing the Polish Army out of Ukraine, except for Lviv. Tukhachevsky then launched an offensive against Warsaw, but lost a devastating battle. Meanwhile, Wrangel launched a campaign to retake Moscow, advancing from various directions and seizing key cities in Ukraine. By October, the Whites had reached Oryol, their closest point to Moscow.

Under the combined circumstances of their losses in Poland, the renewed White offensive, and economic conditions, the Russian Soviets sued for peace with Poland. In March 1921, the Treaty of Riga was signed between Poland, the Russian Soviet, and the USR. Poland recognized the USR and Belarus, formalized new borderlines, and withdrew Polish forces from territory east of Minsk. Having dealt with the Poles and UPR, the Soviets focused on the Whites. The Red Army launched an offensive into Crimea. Nestor Makhno's Revolutionary Insurgent Army, allied with the Russian Soviets and USR, fought Denikin's forces, seizing territory in Eastern Ukraine. In late October, the Red Army launched a counteroffensive, seizing Kursk in November and separating the White armies. The Red Army then overran Crimea, forcing Wrangel to evacuate the White forces to Constantinople in November 1920. Completely isolated in Polish territory, the UPR launched one last winter campaign in October 1921. Three groups penetrated central Ukraine to unify partisan groups. However, the groups were defeated, captured, or forced to retreat. With that, the war for Ukrainian independence was over.

Belarus

The initial Soviet advance was largely unopposed, closely following the retreating German forces. A Belarusian People's Republic had been established under German occupation since March 25, 1918, but it was vulnerable without German protection. Belarusians, along with Poles and Lithuanians, formed self-defense units in western Belarus, but these militias were dwarfed by their Soviet counterparts. From November 17 to December 10, the Red Army seized key cities such as Polotsk, Minsk, and Babruysk with little resistance. On January 1, 1919, the Soviets established the Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia, as the demoralized self-defense units retreated into western Belarus. The Belarusian People's Republic could do little to resist, and the self-defense units eventually formed the 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Division within the Polish Army. Belarus remained under Soviet occupation for two years, during which a planned uprising never materialized.

Estonia

Estonia declared independence on February 24, 1918. By November 11, the Estonian Army, under Major General Aleksander Tõnisson, consisted of a single division of 2,000 men with light weapons and 14,500 poorly armed men of the "Estonian Defence League." On November 28, the Soviet 7th Army and 6th Red Rifle Division attacked Narva, seizing the town. By the end of 1918, the Soviets controlled Estonia east of Tallinn, west of Taru, and south of Ainaži. On December 23, Colonel John Laidoner was appointed Commander-in-chief of the Estonian armed forces and initiated mass recruiting. He formed the 2nd Division, the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion, and the Kalevi Malev Battalion. On December 31, a British Royal Navy squadron arrived in Tallinn, delivering crucial supplies, including rifles, field guns, machine guns, and captured Soviet destroyers. A Finnish volunteer unit of 2,000 men arrived on January 2 to assist Estonia. With these reinforcements, the Estonian Army halted the Soviet advance by January 5 and launched a counter-offensive two days later. The 1st Estonian Division advanced 200 km, recapturing key cities like Tapa, Rakvere, and Narva. In the south, the 2nd Estonian Division, supported by the Tartumma Partisan Battalion and Finnish volunteers, captured Tartu, Valga, and Alūksne by mid-February. By Estonia's first independence day on February 24, their armed forces numbered nearly 20,000 men with 70 field pieces and 230 machine guns. The Soviets responded by establishing a new Estonian Red Army of 80,000 conscripts.

The Estonian Red Army captured Setomaa, Vastseliina, and Räpina by March 15, while the Soviet 7th Army concentrated on the southern front. On March 27, the new Estonian 3rd Division, under Major-General Ernst Põdder, deployed to defend Võru. The 2nd Estonian Division regained Petseri by March 29 and pushed the Estonian Red Army behind the Optjok River. By April 25, the Red Latvian Riflemen captured Rūjiena but were quickly dislodged by the 3rd Estonian Division. By the end of 1919, a new front emerged along the Salacgrīva-Seda-Gauja line. Estonia also allowed the formation of White Russian, Latvian, and Ingrian units in its territory. Bolstered, the Estonians aided the White Russians in pushing into Russia.

On May 13, the White Russian Northern Corps, supported by British and Estonian navies and marines, attacked Narva, annihilating the Soviet 6th Division. The Soviet 7th Army counterattacked, forming a new front along the Luga and Saba rivers. By May 25, the Estonians captured Pskov, destroying the Red Estonian Army and pushing the Soviets past the Velikaya River. To the south, the 2nd and 3rd Estonian Divisions advanced into northern Latvia, recapturing Alūksne and Valmiera by the end of May. On May 31, an Estonian Cavalry Regiment captured Gulbene, and by June 6, the 2nd Estonian Division crossed the Daugava River before seizing Jēkabpils, where they encountered the Baltische Landeswehr.

Latvia

On November 18, 1918, Latvia declared independence, becoming a republic headed by Kārlis Ulmanis. In December, the Soviets invaded Latvia, primarily using Red Latvian Riflemen. By January, they captured key cities, including Riga, and proclaimed a Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic on January 13. The Latvian provisional government and German troops withdrew to Liepāja. On January 15, the Latvian independent battalion halted the Soviet offensive at Lielauce, and on January 22, they seized Skrunda, establishing a new front near the river Venta. On February 18, Estonia allowed the Latvians to form the North Latvian Brigade in their territory. On March 3, the Latvians, with German and Estonian support, launched a counteroffensive, recapturing Takums and Jelgava, while the Freikorps seized Riga. By mid-June, the Soviets held only a small area of Latgale, but conflict arose between the Germans and Estonians. The Freikorps captured Straupe and Limbaži, and the Baltische Landeswehr and Iron Division attacked Cēsis to establish a Baltic-German state. On June 21, the Estonian 3rd Division counterattacked, driving the Germans back to Riga. As the Latvians marched to Riga, the Entente intervened on July 3, imposing an armistice between Latvia, Estonia, and the German units. The Landeswehr was incorporated into the Latvian Army, while the Iron Division and many Freikorps members joined the West Russian Volunteer Army led by Major General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. In October, Bermondt-Avalov captured Riga, forcing the Latvian government to flee. Despite being outnumbered, the Latvian Army counterattacked on November 10, retaking Riga and Jelgava, and pushing the Western Russian Volunteer Army out of Latvia by early December, securing their homeland.

Lithuania

In February 1918, Lithuania declared independence, forming its first national government under Augustinas Voldemaras. As the Germans withdrew in November, the Lithuanians mobilized to defend their borders. However, on December 8, a Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic emerged in Vilnius, headed by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas. Beginning on December 22, the Red Army captured two-thirds of Lithuania, facing only under-equipped partisan troops. The Soviet advance towards East Prussia prompted Germany to dispatch General Rüdiger von der Goltz with the Shaulen Brigade to aid the Lithuanian forces, led by Jonas Variakojis. Just before Kaunas was encircled, the German-Lithuanians repelled a major attack at Kėdainiai on February 8. They then launched an offensive, capturing Mažeikiai, Šėta, and Alytus, and annihilating the Soviet 7th Riflemen Regiment at the battle of Jieznas. By mid-March, they retook Kuršėnai, Šiauliai, and Radviliškis.

In April, the Lithuanians launched their first organized offensive towards Vilnius, taking Žąsliai and Ukmergė. However, on April 19, the Polish Army seized Vilnius from the Soviets, shifting the Lithuanian focus northeast. During that month, the Lithuanian Army reorganized under General Silvestras Žukauskas, forming the Vilkmergė and Panevėžys Groups. Beginning on May 17, the Vilkmergė group captured Kurkliai and Utena, while the Panevėžys Group took Panevėžys and Kupiškis. Throughout June and July, the Lithuanians continued to drive the Red Army back until they reached the Daugava River, bordering Latvia, where a front line stabilized. On July 12, Lithuania and the RSFSR signed a peace treaty, recognizing Lithuania’s independence, though Poland did not recognize this treaty.

Poland

In November 1918, the Second Polish Republic was established with Józef Piłsudski at its head. Poland was surrounded by warring neighbors. On December 7, Piłsudski incorporated Polish Self-Defense units in major cities into the Polish army. The Poles were overwhelmed by the Soviet 16th Army at Minsk and Vilnius. On February 13, the first major battle broke out near Byaroza, escalating the Polish-Soviet War. That month, a southern and northern front was established. In March, the Poles crossed the Neman River, capturing Pinsk. On April 16, Piłsudski led an offensive, capturing Lida, Novogrudok, and Vilnius by April 19. The Soviet 16th Army counterattacked on April 30 but was defeated by May 7. In the wake of their victory, the Polish General Stanisław Szeptycki formed a new Lithuanian-Belarusian Front on May 15.

On August 8, the Poles took Minsk, and on August 28, they deployed tanks for the first time against the Soviets at Babruysk. In September, Barysaw and Polotsk were taken, securing territory spanning the Daugava and Berezina Rivers. The Poles benefited from the Soviets' involvement in fighting White forces such as Anton Denikin’s Volunteer Army. Throughout 1919, Denikin pleaded with Piłsudski to join his offensive against Moscow, but Piłsudski refused, believing a better deal could be brokered with Bolshevik Russia. Some historians argue that if Poland had joined Denikin’s advance upon Moscow, the Bolsheviks might have lost the war. On January 3, 1920, Poland and Latvia formed an alliance, launching a joint offensive, taking the Soviet 15th Army by surprise and capturing Daugavpils within two days, severing communications between Lithuania and the Soviets. In March, General Władysław Sikorski initiated a new offensive in Polesia, driving a wedge between the Soviet forces in Belarus and Ukraine.

In April, Symon Petliura signed the Treaty of Warsaw, ceding claims over eastern Galicia and western Volhynia for Polish military assistance in regaining Kiev. By early 1920, the Polish armed forces had grown to 800,000 men with 20,000 Ukrainian allies. Meanwhile, Leon Trotsky reorganized the Red Army, which numbered 5 million men on paper, though only 12% were combat-worthy. The Red Army lacked logistics, communications, and supplies, and the Polish dominated the air war. On April 25, the Kiev offensive began with the objective of creating a Ukrainian state under Polish patronage. They overwhelmed the Soviet 12th and 14th armies, forcing them to withdraw past the Dnieper River. On May 7, the Polish-Ukrainian forces captured an abandoned Kiev. In response, Trotsky ordered General Mikhail Tukhachevsky to launch an offensive along the Belarusian front on May 14. The Soviets advanced 100 kilometers before the Poles counterattacked, retaking their territory by June 8. Meanwhile, Yegorov was reinforced and launched a counterattack into Ukraine on May 29, recapturing Kiev and breaking the Polish-Ukrainian front by June 10. The Polish-Ukrainian forces withdrew to western Ukraine, unable to support Poland’s long northern front, held by only 120,000 troops.

By July 4, Tukhachevsky had assembled the Soviet 3rd, 4th, 15th, and 16th armies, up to 300,000 men strong, with significant cavalry, artillery, and machine guns. The Soviets, with Lithuanian support, captured Mińsk, Vilnius, and Brest by the end of September. After crossing the Narew River on August 2, the Soviets had pushed the front 100 kilometers from Warsaw and dislodged the Poles almost entirely from Ukraine. Poland’s existence was threatened, leading to the recruitment of 170,000 new Polish troops. France began shipping military advisors, weaponry, artillery, and Renault FT tanks. Tukhechevsky planned to cross the Vistula River northwest of Warsaw and encircle the city. Joseph Stalin, appointed Commissar of the southwestern front, opted to attack Lwów instead of aiding Tukhachevsky’s assault on Warsaw, a decision that proved fateful. The Poles had also decrypted Soviet radio messages, discovering their battle plan. 

On August 12, the assault on Warsaw began as Piłsudski designed a trap, allowing Tukhachevsky’s forces to advance north while he built a counteroffensive in the south. On August 14, the Polish 5th Army counterattacked over the Wkra River, pushing the Soviet 3rd and 15th armies away from Warsaw using Blitzkrieg-like tactics, disrupting the Soviet northern envelopment maneuver. On August 16, Piłsudski unleashed his southern attack, severing the communication and supply lines of the Soviet 16th Army. With a large gap opened between the Soviet fronts, the Polish unleashed an all-out assault. By August 18, Tukhachevsky realized his folly and ordered a retreat, but the situation was beyond salvage. The Poles pursued the enemy until August 25, taking 50,000 prisoners as 45,000 fled into Prussia. The Soviets suffered significant casualties, while the Poles also endured losses. The Poles recaptured Grodno, Lida, and Minsk, reforming a new front line. Piłsudski’s victory at Warsaw became known as the Miracle on the Vistula.

Finland

In the twilight of 1917, as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was taking shape, Finland seized its chance, becoming the first republic to declare independence on December 6th, under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud. However, this watershed moment was quickly followed by the eruption of a bloody civil war, further complicated by the Entente allies' intervention in North Russia, aiming to supplant the Red revolution with a White counterrevolution.

The Finnish Civil War pitted two formidable forces against each other: the Red Finns and the White Finns. The Red Finnish state, known as the Finnish Socialist Workers Republic (FSWR), was established on January 29th, led by Kullervo Manner. Their Red Guards, initially 40,000 strong under Ali Aaltonen, swelled to a possible 100,000, including 2,600 female fighters. Despite their numbers, they were plagued by inadequate equipment, provisions, training, and a clear command structure. The Red commander-in-chief would change hands three times until April 10th when Kullervo Manner took the mantle. Ali Aaltonen was replaced on 28 January 1918 by Eero Haapalainen as commander-in-chief. He, in turn, was displaced by the Bolshevik triumvirate of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta on 20 March. The last commander-in-chief of the Red Guard was Kullervo Manner, from 10 April until the last period of the war when the Reds no longer had a named leader. They acquired weapons from the RSFSR, with Ali Aaltonen managing to purchase 15,000 rifles, machine guns, artillery pieces and 2 million cartridges from the Bolsheviks in February of 1918 to arm the Reds.

Conversely, the White Provisional Government's White Guards, led by General Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, comprised volunteer Civil Guards, 1,450 soldiers from a Jäger battalion, a professional staff of 84 Swedish volunteer officers, and former Finnish officers from the Tsar’s army. The Jägers, trained in Germany since 1915, served as officers and instructors, forming the core of the White military. Initially, the White Guards numbered 15,000, but conscription increased their ranks to 60,000, with 25% serving as frontline troops. While the Reds received support from the Bolsheviks, the Whites were backed by Sweden and Germany. Both sides acquired around 100,000 rifles, 400 machine guns, and a few hundred artillery pieces, with the Russian 7.62mm Mosin–Nagant Model 1891 rifle and Maxim machine gun being the most common weapons. The war was primarily fought along railways, which were crucial for troop and supply transport.

The Reds seized the initiative in late January, refusing to recognize the new government and capturing Helsinki, Kotka, Turku, and most of southern Finland, forcing the White government to relocate to Vaasa. Despite being decently armed, the Reds suffered from a lack of skilled leadership, resulting in an uncoordinated chain of command and a failure to capitalize on their initial momentum. By February, a discontinuous front line divided the Reds and Whites across southern Finland.

On March 16th, General Mannerheim launched an offensive to encircle the Reds at the Tavastia front before assaulting Tampere, Finland's major industrial city. The Reds collapsed under Mannerheim’s attacks, retreating to Tampere. Mannerheim gradually laid siege to Tampere, cutting off the Red’s connections southward at Lempäälä and westward at Siuro, Nokia, and Ylöjärvi by March 25th. On the 28th, 17,000 Whites stormed the city, facing 14,000 Reds in brutal street-to-street combat, concentrated in the areas of Kalevankangas Cemetery and the Hippodrome in the eastern outskirts of Tampere. The conscripted troops suffered terrible losses, with total casualties amounting to roughly 50%, forcing them to reorganize their battle plans. Mannerheim was compelled to deploy some of his best-trained Jäger detachments. On April 3rd, the Whites assaulted the districts of Tammela and Kyttälä, fighting house to house until they reached the Tammerkoski river which divided the town in two. The next morning, they crossed the river, capturing the western part of the city and forcing its surrender by the 6th. The White Army captured 12,000 prisoners after suffering 900 casualties, while the Reds suffered 2,000 casualties.

Germany intervened on behalf of the Whites, dispatching the 10,000-man-strong German Baltic Sea Division led by Colonel Tschirschky und Bögendorff on April 3rd. They attacked Helsinki on the 12th, supported by 2,000 underground White Guards against 7,000 mostly inexperienced Red reserves who had no defensive lines or barricades and were fighting within single buildings and blocks. From 6 to 9 am the Germans broke through over the hill of Tilkka, pushing onwards to take the Pasila railway station before entering the city at 1:30 pm. Bögendorff then formed two units, attacking along Mannerheimintie street and through the Hietalahti district, while a third squad entered the city from the Pasila railway line. By 5:30 pm the Germans reached the Erottaja square where they took the Swedish Theatre and marched over the Pitkäsilta bridge using capitulated Reds as human shields. Meanwhile there was a fierce battle in the Helsinki Railway station and Kluuvi district and at 7 pm German Marines landed at Katajanokka quickly entering Kruununhaka district. A battle over the Red headquarters at the Smolna building raged until 7 am where 500 Reds surrendered. Fighting would remain until 2 pm when a white flag was raised over the Kallio Church tower. Over the course of the battle over 10,000 Reds and their families fled the area. The Reds had suffered up to 2,000 casualties with 6,000 taken prisoner, 400 executed, and the Germans and whites had suffered 77 deaths.

After taking Helsinki, the Germans continued north towards Tuusula, Kerava, and Hyvinkää. The 95th Brigade led by Major General Konrad Wolf attacked Hyvinkää, defended by only 500 Reds, mostly holding positions along the Hanko railway. At 7 am on April 21st, the Germans bombarded the city, followed by an infantry assault. The Reds repelled the first breakthrough attempt, but the Germans soon crossed the Vantaa River, striking into their rear. The Reds withdrew to the Hyvinkää railway station, pursued by the Germans who attacked the railway station from 3 different directions. Fighting house to house, the Reds began evacuating their families and civilians. Hyvinkää fell by 5 pm seeing the Germans suffer 21 deaths and the Reds 50, with numerous civilians killed or wounded.

Meanwhile, the Brandenstein detachment landed in Loviisa on April 12th and advanced north to attack Lahti along the Loviisa–Vesijärvi railway. There, 800 Red Guards and 10,000 armed refugees were dug in over Salpausselkä ridge, giving up the city without a fight. On the 20th, a White Division led by Major Kalm entered Lahti greeting the Germans. On the 21st, the Reds began a counterattack primarily against Okeroinen using an armored train. Red artillery bombarded the city from the 23rd to the 29th, with the Germans retaliating from positions at the hospital and Whites fighting house to house. The leaderless Reds with no chain of command, facing German veterans utterly failed to breach any lines. By the 30th, the Germans recaptured Okeroinen and began encircling the Red forces at Hennala. On May 1st, after suffering 600 casualties, the Reds fled the city leaving behind 30,000 refugees, many of whom were their family members. The German and Whites only suffered 84 deaths.

The Reds established a new capital at Viipuri on April 9th, defended by roughly 5,000 Red soldiers and 7,000 armed refugees, led by Colonel Oskar Rantala. The White Army formed an 18,300-man-strong Eastern Army, consisting of 3 regiments under the overall command of Major General Ernst Löfström. The attack began on the 19th encircling Viipuri from the west, north and east. On the 23rd, Colonel Aufeld cut the Petrograd railway in Raivola, severing Viipuri from the RSFSR. That night the Red General staff ordered all forces in the Karelian front to pull back into the city as the Red Government fled for Petrograd by sea. Then the last remaining Red leader, Edvard Gylling, divided the forces into 3 units to defend the northern, western and eastern approaches to Viipuri. On the 24th, Colonel Ulrich von Coler led a company to capture the last 3 railway stations leaving the only escape by sea. That night underground White forces activated, seizing the artillery fort at Patterinmäki Hill and many governmental buildings, but were unable to hold them and surrendered the following morning. On the 25th the White regiments simultaneously stormed the city, with their conscription suffering heavy casualties. At noon on the 27th, White artillery destroyed the Patterinmäki Fort allowing them to gradually take the city fighting street to street until the 29th, whence 1000 Reds managed to break out of the siege losing 500 in the process. The Whites forces had suffered 400 deaths with up to 1000 wounded, the Reds had suffered roughly 500 deaths, without similar wounded. After taking the city the Whites executed 1200 suspected Reds, including 420 Russians at the Annenkrone fort. This is known as the Viipuri Massacre.

The Red government was now exiled in Petrograd as Red troops and refugees were encircled by White and German forces. The Red Guards made last stands at Kouvola and Kotka, but by May 15th, the war ended when White forces captured Fort Ino, a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus, from the Russian troops. There was no armistice nor credible negotiations between the Whites and Reds. It is estimated the White Guards suffered 3,414 deaths and the Reds 5,199, with tens of thousands on both sides wounded due to combat. Both the Whites and Reds performed terror campaigns seeing the execution and death to prison camps of 1,424 Whites and 7,370 Reds. Altogether the civil war saw nearly 40,000 die, 15,000 children were orphaned, tens of thousands were sent into prison camps or fled the country.

In late 1917, the Entente stockpiled war materials in Archangel and Murmansk under guard of the British North Russia Squadron. Following the German invasion of the RSFSR in February 1918 and the German-White Finnish capture of Pechenga, the RSFSR requested the Entente powers land forces in Murmansk to aid them. An international contingent, led by Lt General Frederick Poole, began landing in North Russia on March 4th. The British supported the Red Army against the White Finns, recapturing Pechenga by May 11th. However, Soviet-Entente relations swiftly turned from distrust to open hostility as the Red Army began fighting to regain control over the Murmansk-Petrograd railway. After the armistice of November 11th, re-establishing the Eastern Front became irrelevant, prompting the Entente to support a White Russia restoration.

On August 2nd, 1918, White Russian Forces led by Captain Georgi Chaplin staged a coup in Archangel in coordination with the Entente who landed 1500 French and British forces under fire to quickly capture the city. A Northern Region Government was erected under Chaplin and on 17th the Entente began an offensive south along the Archangel-Vologda railway. Meanwhile, an Entente naval force began navigating and fighting Soviet gunboats along the Vaga and Northern Dvina. By 1919 Shenkursk, Vysokaya and Nizhnyaya were the southernmost positions held by the Entente. Despite this in late May Britain landed the 3500 man strong North Russian Relief Force who launched a desperate offensive against the key city of Kotlas, hoping to link up with the Kolchak White force in Siberia. However Kolchak’s men were pushed back, forcing the offensive to be canceled. By July nearly all the non-British troops had departed North Russia and on the 20th, 3,000 White Russians mutinied at the key city of Onega, handing it over to the Reds. While withdrawing, a final offensive on the Dvina and Murmansk front was launched in August aimed at destroying enough Red forces to give the Whites a chance at victory. In September the Red Army attacked Archangel and Murmansk from all sides as the last Entente troops departed on September 27th and on October 12th. Without the Entente support the White Russian Northern Army collapses under Red Army offensives by December of 1919.

On October 14th, 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, establishing borders. However, a movement sprang up in Eastern Karelia, secretly supported by Finland who dealt them arms. On November 6th, 1921, the rebels began taking up positions in Repola. 20,000 Red Russians and Finns led by Major General Alexander Sedyakin attacked them in December, easily pushing the rebels over the Finnish border. Hundreds of casualties were incurred on both sides as 30,000 East Karelians fled for Finland. It was to be the last battle of the northern front. Against incredible odds, the RSFSR had survived a possible German-Finnish invasion and an Entente-White Russian insurrection, solidifying her control over the north.

The Soviet Government managed to endure this tumultuous period, although they achieved few lasting victories between 1917 and 1921. They successfully secured Ukraine and Belarus but were unable to subdue Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, or Poland. The Caucasus region was split between the Turks, who took parts of Georgia, and the Soviets, who unified Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federalist Republic. This Republic was soon incorporated into the newly formed United Soviet Socialist Republics. In Central Asia, the Soviets established three republics, which were also absorbed into the USSR. The Bukharan, Khorezmian, and Abkhazian Republics were short-lived but emerged from the remnants of the former Central Asian territories of the Imperial government. The Soviet government continued to combat the White Russians until 1922, when an uneasy peace finally settled over the ruins of the old Empire. The disintegration of the Tsar’s realm was a violent process that lasted over five years. During this time, millions of people, primarily civilians, lost their lives, and many more were displaced. New governments emerged, exhibiting varying degrees of support and hostility toward their citizens, while others struggled to survive. Eastern Europe eventually found peace, albeit years later than the rest of the continent in resolving its conflicts.

These wars significantly accelerated the professionalization of the Red Army during its early years. In March 1918, Leon Trotsky was appointed to oversee the establishment of the Red Army. His push for a permanent military force contradicted established Marxist ideology, which theoretically opposed all state institutions, including the military. Trotsky's vigor and innovative approach as the People’s Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs were crucial in the early development of the Red Army. He was not alone in this task; Stalin also played a significant role in the party's efforts to build the army. Although he often opposed Trotsky, he wielded considerable authority and used it to shape the army according to his preferences, placing his allies in key positions whenever possible.

The Red Army wasn't established overnight; rather, it developed gradually throughout the 1920s. Initially, it consisted of a large group of undisciplined and politically unreliable troops who had combat experience but lacked a coherent command structure. There was minimal organization, a scarcity of professional leaders, and limited intellectual diversity among the top ranks. Addressing these challenges required considerable time and effort from the state, along with the collaboration of the army's most capable individuals. This transformation occurred through various events, influenced by multiple factors that contributed to the Army's professionalization. 

The leadership vacuum that emerged at the onset of the civil war enabled junior officers and relatively inexperienced young men to ascend to prominent positions, breaking the intellectual stagnation that had developed within the upper ranks of the Imperial Army. This influx of new talent in the officer corps facilitated the introduction of innovative ideas regarding warfare throughout the institution. As a result, individuals like Tukhachevsky, Rokossovsky, Zhukov, Vasilevsky, and Timoshenko were able to showcase their abilities. All of these figures would eventually achieve the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. Their intellectual insights and personal leadership were crucial for the future of the Red Army. The fact that many of these future Marshals had previously served as Non-Commissioned Officers in the Imperial Army was not coincidental. Trotsky had implemented a policy of actively recruiting them as junior officers, believing they embodied the Marxist ideal of humble social backgrounds while also possessing essential practical experience in military leadership and management.

The second key factor that significantly contributed to the professionalization of the Red Army in the 1920s was its comprehensive reorganization led by Trotsky, Stalin, and Mikhail Frunze. A major initiative was the establishment of a general staff-like system called the All-Russian Supreme Staff, which included departments for training, mobilization, topography, logistics, planning, and administration. This body would serve as the highest military authority in the government, with Trotsky at its helm. In 1921, this staff evolved into the Red Army Staff. However, Trotsky's attempts to formalize a command-and-control structure faced criticism for contradicting the fundamental principles of Marxist ideology, primarily from Joseph Stalin. Stalin contended that Trotsky's centralized military bureaucracy was inefficient and disconnected the Army from the people's control. This conflict reached a peak in March 1919 during the eighth Party Congress in Moscow, where delegates debated the Army's organization for three days, resulting in a stalemate. Trotsky was permitted to maintain his system, but it was subjected to several reforms, the most crucial of which was the enhancement of political oversight over the All-Russian Supreme Staff. From then on, commissars would jointly evaluate all officer candidates alongside representatives from the personnel department of the All-Russian Supreme Staff, ensuring political control over the officer corps and fostering loyalty to the regime. Following this, the existence of the General Staff was seldom questioned, with further discussions focusing on the extent of political control within the staff and the Army's role in the state.

The third factor contributing to the Red Army's increasing professionalization during this period was the abandonment of the militia system as a peacetime substitute for the regular army established to fight in the civil war. Mikhail Frunze and Mikhail Tukhachevsky emerged as the main opponents of a militia-based military. Although Trotsky had previously supported a regular army, he now advocated for the militia. Demobilization of the Army began as early as 1921, creating a backdrop for fierce internal conflicts regarding the army's future structure as an institution. These conflicts were primarily political in nature. Trotsky sought to counter the rising influence of Stalin and his supporters while also addressing the demands of military leaders who favored a regular army. Ultimately, he failed on both counts. Stalin rose to power, eventually ousting Trotsky, and the Army was regularized, though in a mixed form for several years. Beginning in 1922, the Red Army began receiving regular budget allocations and approval for a formal organizational structure. This structure would undergo several changes in the following years, as the army became a tool for political maneuvering. Overall, the Red Army remained stable from this point until the purges of the 1930s, which will be discussed shortly.

The final significant factor is the early collaboration between the Red Army and its German counterpart, the Reichswehr. This partnership went beyond mere observation of military maneuvers or technical advice; it evolved into a deeply rooted policy initiative for both governments. Their cooperation included the development of equipment, tactics, and even industrial capabilities, affecting all three branches of their respective militaries and becoming a crucial aspect of the narrative surrounding the Second World War. This army-level collaboration began in the early 1920s, reaching its peak with the establishment of a joint armored warfare school at Kama in 1926. This institution became the foundation for the Soviet and German theories of mobile warfare, which were developed during the interwar period and later implemented with devastating effectiveness in the Second World War.

In addition to the Red Army, the Russian Civil War led to the establishment of the Red Air Force and the conversion of the Imperial Navy into the Red Navy. The civil war primarily involved ground battles, resulting in minimal involvement from the other two branches. The Red Air Force had been nominally established shortly after the October Revolution, but its presence was limited, with fewer than 350 operational aircraft available in 1919. Although there were hundreds more in reserve, many lacked engines or were deemed unserviceable for various reasons. By 1924, this situation began to improve. A joint training school for pilots was established with the Germans in Lipetsk, transforming the small, outdated airfield into a modern facility complete with hangars, repair shops, and even a hospital. The collaboration between the Red Air Force and Germany proved beneficial for both parties. Eventually, Junkers set up a large factory in the suburbs of Moscow for producing aircraft engines and airframes. However, this partnership faced challenges, and Junkers withdrew from the agreement by 1926. Nonetheless, the mere existence of this collaboration highlighted the extent to which both air forces and their governments were striving to work together.

The reorganization of the Red Airforce commenced in earnest in 1924, emphasizing a clear distinction between frontline operations and rear administrative roles, which included specialized commands for naval and land-based aviation. The land-based aviation structure was to be split into 'strategic' and 'Corps' commands. The strategic command would oversee interceptors, heavy and light bombers, and reconnaissance units, while the Corps command would concentrate on army collaboration, tactical reconnaissance, and artillery observation. The naval aspect was intended to incorporate interceptor, reconnaissance, and mine-laying squadrons. Establishing this new structure took time, but efforts to address manpower and equipment issues were pursued vigorously.

The Navy garnered immediate attention following the October Revolution, largely due to the pivotal role its sailors played in the power takeover. However, this attention was limited to the Bolshevik officials taking control of the Navy's structures to maintain political oversight over its members and avert any potential uprisings against the regime. Significant reforms aimed at transforming the Navy would not be pursued until well after the civil war, focusing on removing unreliable Imperial officers and dismantling the old control systems. Additionally, efforts would concentrate on shaping the enlisted sailors into a disciplined force. In 1924, these reforms began in earnest, primarily concerning personnel decisions and command structures, as budget constraints hindered more extensive changes at that time. The foremost priority was to reestablish political reliability.

As part of a broader initiative to politicize the military, doctrinal discussions commenced, reflecting the political implications seen in Army debates. Within the Red Navy, two schools of thought emerged, paralleling the ongoing militia versus standing army discussions. The traditional school, comprising some former Tsarist officers and older Bolsheviks, advocated for a large navy inspired by American theorist Alfred Thayer Mahan. Alfred Thayan Mahan was a turn of the century American Naval theorist who popularized the idea of the decisive role of the fleet battle in naval affairs. Over time the big-gun battleship fleet as the tool for the decisive battle came to represent Mahan’s ideas. His work was influenced by Jomini’s conception of strategic points and by British naval history. His ideas were developed and put into practice by all of the major combatants in WW1. They believed that a powerful fleet of battleships focused on decisive battles would allow the revolution to spread globally while countering challenges to Soviet naval supremacy.

In contrast, the young school firmly opposed these ideas. Influenced by the French Jeune d’École and British naval historian Julian Corbett, they contended that achieving control of the high seas, as suggested by Mahan, was unattainable. The Jeune d’Ecole doctrine (literally the young school) was a doctrinal movement in French Naval circles that was centered around commerce raiding rather than the decisive battle as proposed by Mahan. Julian Corbett developed a theory of naval power that centered on the control of shipping lanes both in the offensive and defensive manners. Corbett was influenced by the Juene Ecole and popularized the idea of commerce raiding in smaller navies around the world. This was represented by the Kriegsmarine’s attempt at commerce raiding in WW2, as seen in the construction of the Panzerschiff and the later Battlecruisers Gneisenau and Scharnhorst. Instead, they argued that the Soviet Navy should aim to secure control over the critical maritime approaches to its ports. The narrow passages of the Baltic Sea were ideal for the smaller, lighter raiding vessels favored by the young school. By 1930, the debate reached a conclusion. Tukhachevsky, as chief of staff of the Red Army, strongly backed the young school, and his influence prevailed. However, this victory came at a significant cost: the new Red Navy would be entirely subordinated to the Army, lacking the status of a first-class power and being dependent on the Army for budgets, strategic priorities, and operational matters. While the young school achieved their desired doctrine, their Navy was now required to serve the interests of the Army.

Efforts to initiate a technical overhaul of the Navy began in 1925, including outreach to the German Navy for support. In 1926, German and Soviet officers established a technical collaboration focused on submarine command, construction, and engine development. Later that year, a German naval mission visited the Soviet Navy and its facilities, marking a significant step in cooperation between the two navies and leading to the transfer of several U-boat designs. This German mission in 1926 was reciprocated in 1930 with a tour of Germany’s latest naval innovation, the Panzerschiff A. Panzerschiff A was a secret project of the German navy to develop a raiding cruiser. Panzerschiff A became the KMS Deutschland, before being renamed to the KMS Lutzow. The Royal Navy would dub the Deutschland class ships “pocket battleships” for their large caliber main armament, relatively small size and high speed. These developments reflected the strengthening ties between the Soviet and German militaries, laying the foundation for increased cooperation between their governments in the following decade.

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Following the Russian Revolution and World War I, the Russian Civil War erupted, with independence movements arising across the former empire. This led to conflicts in Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Finland. The Red Army emerged and underwent professionalization through leadership changes, reorganization, and collaboration with Germany.