Eastern Front Prelude # 0.9 The Blitzkrieg of Western Europe

Last time we spoke about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. In a turbulent prelude to World War II, tensions soared as Hitler's rise transformed Europe’s landscape. The Soviet Union, wary of Germany's ambitions, sought alliances with Britain and France, aiming to deter further aggression. However, when these alliances faltered, Stalin turned to Nazi Germany, leading to the historic Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939. This shocking agreement allowed both powers to divide Eastern Europe, particularly Poland, into spheres of influence, ensuring mutual non-aggression. As Europe braced for conflict, this pact altered geopolitical dynamics, alarming nations like Japan, who feared a united Axis front. The pact bought Stalin time to fortify his western borders, while Hitler prepared for rapid expansion. Thus, the seeds of a devastating conflict were sown, illustrating how failed diplomacy and ideological clashes shaped the world’s fate, setting the stage for global warfare that would ensue. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact remains a chilling reminder of alliances forged amid chaos.

This episode is Prelude #9 The Blitzkrieg of Western Europe

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more  so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

Hello again, today we are diving into the outbreak of WW2. Buckle up. During the summer of 1939, Germany was gearing up to invade Poland. This operation, known as Case White, aimed for the main force of the Wehrmacht to penetrate Polish defenses in a pincer movement culminating in Warsaw. For the invasion, the German Army, referred to as the Heer, was organized into two major Army Groups, with a smaller group stationed in the west to deter any French or British advances. In the West, Colonel General Ritter von Leeb commanded Army Group C, tasked with defending the Westwall, which extended from Duisburg in the north to Mainz in the center and the Swiss border in the south. Although he was technically in charge of three field armies, the 1st, 5th, and 7th, their strengths were largely superficial, meant to project the appearance of a much larger force to intimidate the French and British. No tanks were available in the west, and Leeb's troops relied solely on Luftwaffe reconnaissance and anti-aircraft units for support.

In the Polish theater of operations, the Army was organized into two groups for the invasion. The primary focus was assigned to Colonel General Gerd von Rundstedt, who led Army Group South. His mission was to move his forces from Silesia in a northerly direction toward Warsaw via Lodz. Rundstedt commanded three field armies: the 8th, 10th, and 14th, along with most of the Panzer divisions. At this point, there were only six Panzer divisions in the entire army. Additionally, there were four Leichte, or “Light,” divisions, each consisting of one Panzer battalion combined with an infantry brigade and an artillery regiment. These combined divisions had just 39 tanks. There are different opinions regarding the role of the Leichte divisions. Some paint them as a stop gap solution to motorize the army pending production of more tanks. Others say they were an experimental attempt to modernize the cavalry as reconnaissance divisions. The truth, as always, is probably a mixture of both. While they were more mobile than traditional infantry divisions, they were approximately half the size of a motorized infantry division, which did not have tanks. Rundstedt was in charge of all four Light Divisions: the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. He also oversaw four of the six Panzer divisions: the 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 5th.

The other military formation in the Polish theater was Army Group North, led by Colonel General von Bock. He commanded two field armies: the 3rd Army, stationed in East Prussia, ready to advance southward to converge with Army Group South in Warsaw, and the 4th Army in Pomerania, aiming to secure the Polish Corridor. Bock was also assigned a motorized corps under the General of Panzer Troops Guderian, which included one panzer division. Additionally, he received Panzer-Division Kempf, a combined task force of Panzer and SS regiments that fell short of the typical division strength. Panzer Division Kempf is notable for more than its odd combination of SS and panzer troops. It was made up of one light panzer regiment, the Waffen-SS Regiment SS Deutschland, and an unnumbered SS Artillery regiment. The OKH held in reserve a total of one panzer division, thirteen infantry divisions, and two mountain infantry divisions. Eleven of the thirteen infantry divisions were kept in strategic reserve to address any significant operations in the west that might threaten Army Group C, while the remaining troops were designated as reserves for the campaign in Poland. Overall, the Germans were deploying a formidable force of one million five hundred thousand soldiers, supported by two thousand seven hundred fifty tanks and nine thousand artillery pieces of various sizes.

To confront the cluster of German troops in the west, the Poles assembled seven field armies along with an independent corps. One of the field armies was kept in reserve, with divisions stationed near Warsaw and Sandomierz. The Polish field armies were not numbered, but instead were given regional names. The six armies on the front were: 

1. The Carpathian Army, commanding: MG Fabryey. 2. The Krakow Army, commanding BG Szylling. 3. The Lodz Army, commanding: MG Rommel . 4. The Poznan Army, commanding MG Kutrzeba . 5. The Modlin Army. commanding: Bg Przedrzymirski-Krukowicz. 6. The Pomorze Army. commanding: LTG Bortnowski. The reserve army was the Prussia Army commanding: MG Dab-Biernacki. Independent Corps was known as the Narew Group. Commanding: BG Mlot-Fijalkowski. This constituted the majority of the Polish forces; however, many units were still in the process of mobilization when the Germans launched their attack.

The invasion of Poland would be preceded by a false flag operation, quite reminiscent of the Mukden Incident or Marco Polo Bridge Incident, used to guise the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and China proper.

Operation Himmler, also known as Operation Konserve, was a covert false flag operation conducted by Nazi Germany in 1939, primarily aimed at creating a pretext for the German invasion of Poland. The operation was orchestrated under the supervision of Heinrich Himmler, with key figures including Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller involved in its planning. In the months leading up to the invasion, a propaganda campaign was launched by German authorities, especially by Adolf Hitler, accusing Polish officials of ethnic cleansing against Germans living in Poland. This narrative served to justify the impending military actions and to sway international opinion against Poland. Most of the deceptive incidents attributed to Polish aggression occurred on August 31, 1939. Initially scheduled to begin on August 26, the operation's actual launch was delayed due to shifting diplomatic circumstances. German operatives, including members of the SS, executed staged attacks wearing Polish uniforms. This saw them attack German border posts and broadcast messages in Polish from seized radio stations. They left behind the bodies of concentration camp prisoners dressed in Polish uniforms as evidence of Polish brutality. The most infamous of these incidents was the Gleiwitz incident, where operatives seized a radio station to deliver anti-German propaganda, further fueling the justification for war. On September 1, 1939, Hitler addressed the Reichstag, claiming that several border incidents twenty-one on the night before were acts of Polish aggression. He framed the invasion of Poland as a defensive measure to protect Germany from perceived threats, despite the fact that these "threats" were fabricated during the operation.

On September 1, 1939, at around 4:45 AM, Hitler’s military campaign was set in motion. Throughout the previous year, the UK and France had assured support for the Polish government, but now they hesitated. It wasn’t until September 3 that they were able to declare war. In the meantime, the Wehrmacht was rapidly advancing. Every hour was critical as Polish cities faced bombardment and German tanks began to encircle the strongest units of the Polish army. By September 8, the 4th Panzer Division was engaged on the outskirts of Warsaw, while the French had not yet completed their mobilization. By September 15, Warsaw was surrounded, and the fight for Poland was nearly concluded. In the days prior, Hitler had questioned the Soviets about their intentions regarding Poland. Stalin delayed until he recognized that Poland would soon fall. On September 17, he ordered the Red Army to cross the border. Two Army Fronts were formed for the invasion: the Ukrainian and Belarusian fronts. These were temporary formations, assigned a mix of units ranging from independent brigades to entire field armies. The main force consisted of three "mobile groups," which were essentially army-sized units of tanks, cavalry, and motorized infantry. Stalin aimed for Soviet troops to extend deep into Polish territory, hoping to reduce reliance on German withdrawals to meet the demarcation lines outlined in the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, thereby avoiding any potential conflict. The Poles, already on the brink of defeat, fell back quickly in response to this new onslaught. On September 27, a German delegation met with Molotov to discuss altering the initial plans for dividing Eastern Europe. After several days of discussions, a modification was agreed upon. Originally, Lithuania had been designated to the German sphere of influence, but it was now transferred to the Soviet Union. In return, Germany received Lublin and all of Warsaw.

The campaign concluded on October 6th, with the final Polish resistance surrendering under General Kleeburg at Kock, situated between the Bug and Wieprz rivers. This came just thirty-five days after the German invasion began. Poland was devastated. While few believed the Polish Army could defeat the Germans, the rapidity of their victory was unexpected. French Commander-in-Chief General Gamelin had informed his government that he anticipated the resistance to continue at least until spring. Although the campaign ended swiftly, it was challenging and resulted in significant losses for the German Army. The Heer experienced approximately fifty thousand casualties, including dead and wounded. While these losses were relatively light for a campaign of such scale, each one was felt deeply in an army reliant on a small, experienced cadre of non-commissioned and commissioned officers. The Germans also lost around two hundred tanks, which was less detrimental to the army's overall strength compared to personnel losses, as many of the destroyed tanks were older models like the Panzer I and II. This situation revealed flaws in the organization and tactics of the Panzer divisions. It would take time to replace the lost resources and fully integrate the lessons learned from this campaign.

Even before the conflict escalated in Poland, Stalin began his actions in the Baltic states. His goal was to assert Soviet control over the territories assigned to him by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact just weeks prior. Facing the threat of invasion, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed agreements allowing Soviet troops to station themselves within their borders. This was merely a precursor, and by the summer of 1940, Stalin commanded the occupation of all three countries. By August, they had been integrated as republics of the Soviet Union. In contrast, the Finns managed to withstand Soviet advances, leading to the Winter War in late 1939. Although the Soviet Union annexed some Finnish land, it came at a significant cost. 

With Poland now conquered, the focus shifted to the West. Gamelin attempted to take advantage of the weeks that followed to further mobilize the Army and initiated a limited offensive in the Saar during the war's early days. This operation was quite restricted, involving troops from three field armies. Nonetheless, it was stopped after advancing only a few miles. The French forces remained in place until October 16th, when they retreated in response to a weak German counterattack. No additional fighting occurred in the West for the rest of 1939. This period marked Germany’s most vulnerable point since 1936, yet the French failed to capitalize on the opportunity. The reasons for this retreat, be it incompetence, lack of resolve, or inadequate intelligence, remain unclear. Meanwhile, the Wehrmacht commenced its transfer from the east and began preparing for actions in the west. As winter approached, Hitler turned his focus northward. Germany depended on Swedish iron ore for its industries, which during winter was transported through Norway before being loaded onto ships bound for Germany. Swedish iron ore was transported through the Baltic sea during the summer months, but in the winter, too much of the route was blocked by large ice floes. This shipping route was vulnerable to interference from the Royal Navy as the vessels sailed through the North Sea instead of the more secure Baltic Sea. Therefore, securing Denmark and Norway became essential. Plans for an operation were developed, aiming for a coordinated attack on both countries in early April of 1940. It was determined that the Scandinavian nations needed to be secured before any offensive against France and the Low Countries could proceed. 

Before the invasion, Denmark had signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, which lasted less than a year. Initially, Germany aimed to persuade Denmark to allow access to its military bases. However, Adolf Hitler ultimately ordered the invasion, shifting to a more aggressive strategy to secure Norway's vital resources, particularly iron ore shipping routes from Narvik. The establishment of radar systems in Denmark was part of an effort to protect German territories from potential British air attacks later on. The German High Command devised a multi-faceted attack plan. Paratroopers were to secure strategic points such as airfields and bridges. Ships were tasked with landing troops at key coastal cities like Copenhagen and along the Jutland Peninsula. Ground forces were set to advance quickly across Danish territory.

On the morning of April 9, at 04:15, German troops began breaching the Danish border in multiple locations. The Danish military, which was unprepared and scattered, struggled to mount an effective defense. Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning feared heavy bombings similar to those witnessed in Poland and ordered an end to resistance within mere hours of the invasion, citing the untenable position of the Danish forces. The initial clashes included sporadic resistance from Danish troops, particularly at Lundtoftbjerg and Aabenraa. Danish units attempted to set up roadblocks and engage German forces but were quickly overwhelmed by superior numbers and equipment. For instance, at Lundtoftbjerg, a Danish anti-tank unit faced off against a German column, managing to disable some German vehicles before being forced back. Danish forces made determined efforts to defend specific towns like Haderslev and Tønder, inflicting some casualties on advancing German troops. However, prolonged resistance was impossible, and by around 08:34, Denmark formally capitulated after only six hours of fighting.

The rapid fall of Denmark led to a notably lenient occupation by German forces, as they allowed Danish authorities to retain some degree of autonomy in managing domestic affairs. The Royal Danish Army was largely disbanded, and a small unit called the Life Guards was retained. The swift occupation of Denmark was viewed with disdain by Allied forces, leading to perceptions of the Danes as passive in the face of aggression. The phrase Aldrig mere 9 April “Never again April 9” has since become a popular saying in Denmark, reflecting a collective wish to never again experience such a sudden and humiliating defeat. Yet Denmark was to only be part of a larger invasion.

Following the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland, the UK shifted its plans to occupy northern Norway. However, after negotiations and military planning, conflicts of interest and the evolving geopolitical situation led to an escalation on Germany's part. In December 1939, Hitler ordered a preliminary assessment for a Norwegian invasion, solidifying Germany's intention to capture strategic ports and airfields. Under the codename "Operation Weserübung," the Germans planned to invade Denmark and Norway in rapid succession. General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst was appointed commander for the operation, which included the deployment of infantry, mountain divisions, and paratroopers. The Luftwaffe was key to the operation, intending to secure air superiority with around 1,000 aircraft. On April 5, 1940, the British initiated the mining of Norwegian waters in a bid to provoke a German response. The Allies had planned their intervention in Norway as a two-fold mission. 1. To prevent Hitler from securing the Baltic and 2. To prepare to support Finland in its war against the Soviet Union. In France, public opinion was strongly in favor of intervention against the Soviets during this time.

The German invasion was launched on April 9, 1940, involved around 120,000 German troops and significant naval and air support, targeting key locations such as Oslo, Narvik, and Trondheim. At Oslo, German forces encountered resistance but secured the capital quickly after dealing with coastal defenses. The German cruiser Blücher was sunk by Norwegian forces at Oscarsborg Fortress, which delayed the invasion. The port of Narvik was one of the most critical of the Norwegian campaign. The port became crucial for German access to Swedish iron ore and witnessed fierce fighting. After several engagements, including the First and Second Battles of Narvik, the Allies initially retook the city before being forced into retreat due to the changing nature of the broader conflict in Europe.

The Allies had mobilized a force of about 38,000 troops, which included British, French, and Polish units. Despite some early successes, such as the landings at Narvik, the Allies struggled with coordination and support logistics due to the swift German advance. Following the German success in France, which we will get into later, the Allies were compelled to withdraw from Norway. The successful evacuation efforts from locations like Narvik were challenged by heavy German air superiority and the efficient use of U-boat patrols by the Germans.

The battle for Norway was a complex situation that unfolded over several weeks, but the outcome was rarely in question. The Germans deployed five divisions, backed by comprehensive naval and air support. The Norwegians were taken by surprise, poorly equipped, and faced internal turmoil due to a coup attempt. While this coup ultimately failed, it transformed Norway into little more than a puppet state for Berlin. In Moscow, Stalin felt a sense of relief; he had been concerned that the Allies might draw the Soviet Union into the broader conflict following the Winter War. With Germany's occupation of Norway, it became evident that any chance for the Allies to strike against the Soviets was lost. 

The fighting in Norway would continue until early June, but the region was secure enough for Hitler to proceed with plans for Western Europe. He clearly indicated to his Generals that Belgium and the Netherlands' neutrality would not be honored. Initial strategies for invading France aimed to replicate the Schlieffen Plan from 1914; however, this was abandoned in favor of a proposal from the relatively junior Lieutenant General Manstein. His plan involved a surprise attack through the Ardennes Forest while creating a diversion in the Low Countries to lure the Allied forces out of France. The majority of the panzer divisions would then advance through the Ardennes to sever the Allied armies' connection to France, enabling the large encirclement that had been central to German military strategy since the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

The Germans devised a meticulous strategy involving diversionary forces that would enter Belgium to lure British and French troops away from their established positions. A second contingent would traverse the Ardennes Forest, circumventing the Maginot Line, with the objective of disconnecting the northern Allied forces from those in the south. The French hoped to rely not only on the fortified concrete defenses of the Maginot Line but also on the natural barrier provided by the Ardennes Forest, which they believed was impassable. The German objective was clear: to conquer Holland and Luxembourg before taking Belgium and France, ultimately advancing towards the English Channel while dismantling any Allied resistance and capturing Paris. With this plan, a brief crossing of the English Channel would suffice for the German military to invade Britain. The success of the "Blitzkrieg" tactics, championed by General Guderian in Poland, expedited the invasion process and equipped German forces with invaluable experience.

In contrast to Norway, the Low Countries had been anticipating an invasion for several months. Both the Netherlands and Belgium were nearly fully mobilized and had established agreements for their collective defense. Together, they had roughly 900,000 troops, although a significant portion of their equipment was outdated and of questionable quality. Their combined air force numbered fewer than 900 planes, with even fewer being modern combat aircraft. A well-armed and trained British Expeditionary Force was located just south of the Belgian border with France. Along with the French armies positioned immediately south of the Belgian frontier from Sedan to the sea, there were about 750,000 potential reinforcements available to the Dutch and Belgian forces. Although there was a sizeable Allied air presence in reserve, it was insignificant compared to the strength of the Luftwaffe.

In May 1940, the German military's strength consisted of approximately 3.5 million troops, over 5,500 aircraft, and 10 panzer divisions. The Allies could deploy a similar number of tanks, but these were scattered among infantry units instead of being organized into concentrated armored divisions, and many tanks were without radios. The Dutch defense strategy relied significantly on flooding certain areas that an invading army might cross. The Belgian defenses were more formidable; their defensive line followed the Meuse River up to Liège, then extended along the Albert Canal, a waterway with steep banks that created a significant barrier. At the heart of the Belgian defense were a series of forts along the canal, with Eben Emael being the largest and seemingly impregnable fortress, overseeing the routes to the Dutch city of Maastricht and crucial bridges across the Albert Canal. However, as a joint Dutch-Belgian defensive line, this system had a critical flaw: it did not connect the Albert Canal and Belgian Meuse defenses with the Dutch lines, creating a gap that significantly contributed to the rapid isolation and defeat of the Netherlands.

The Allies anticipated that the German attack would align with the Schlieffen Plan used during WW1. Indeed, the German plancode named “Fall Gelb” or “Case Yellow” strategy proposed by Chief of the Army General Staff Franz Halder followed this model. Even before the plan fell into Belgian hands in January 1940, Hitler had dismissed it as too conservative and lacking ambition. He was thus open to Lieut. Gen. Erich von Manstein's bold alternative. The offensive was to be executed by three army groups: Army Group C, led by Gen. Wilhelm von Leeb, would feint against the Maginot Line, while Gen. Fedor von Bock's Army Group B would execute the invasion of Belgium and the Netherlands. This would draw Allied forces into Belgium, consistent with their expectations of a repeat of the Schlieffen Plan. Meanwhile, Gen. Gerd von Rundstedt would command the third army group, Army Group A, consisting of 1.5 million men and over 1,500 tanks, executing an armored assault through the Ardennes, bypassing both the Maginot Line and the Allies' strongest divisions.

On May 10, when the Germans invaded the Netherlands, their ground attacks launched from multiple locations, all aimed at The Hague, Amsterdam, and Rotterdam. The most formidable of these assaults swept through Dutch Limburg towards Maastricht, quickly achieving success and cutting off a large part of the Netherlands from reinforcements coming from the south. The gap in the defense lay between the Belgian lines, which at Liège and just west of Maastricht turned west along the Albert Canal, and the Dutch water defense positions located about 40 to 50 miles to the north. The only feasible route to bring Allied or Belgian troops to the Rotterdam area, aside from via sea, was across the long bridge over the Meuse at Moerdijk. However, this bridge was captured on the first day of the attack by German paratroopers, who held it firmly until the main body of German ground forces could arrive.

In Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and The Hague, German airborne forces took control of crucial airfields and bridges, while Dutch commanders fretted over potential sabotage by fifth column agents. Within hours of the German attack's onset, British and French troops abandoned their positions in northern France and raced north through Belgium to confront the enemy. The French Ninth Army advanced from near Sedan, the endpoint of the Maginot Line. The French relied on the Ardennes, which they deemed impassable to armored forces, to protect their right flank. This incorrect assumption would become a key factor in Germany's triumph and France's defeat.

Resistance centers in the Netherlands faced intense aerial bombardment. By May 12, German tanks were nearing Rotterdam, and the next day, Queen Wilhelmina and her ministers escaped to England, where they formed a government in exile. On May 14, recognizing the dire situation, Dutch commander-in-chief Gen. Henri Gerard Winkelman surrendered the armies stationed north and east of the Schelde River, which included nearly the entire Netherlands. On the same day, as the commander of Dutch forces in Rotterdam was negotiating the city's surrender, numerous Heinkel He-111 bombers appeared overhead. The subsequent air raid devastated the city center and led to the immediate surrender of Rotterdam. While it took several additional days for the Germans to defeat the remaining Dutch forces in Zeeland, “Fortress Holland” was conquered in just a week. 

On the first day of the invasion, German forces near Maastricht crossed the Albert Canal into Belgium after successfully neutralizing the fortress of Eben Emael through a daring predawn airborne assault. Several hundred elite Fallschirmjäger paratroopers quietly landed in gliders on top of the fort and began to methodically destroy the turrets and casemates using shaped charges. Once daylight arrived, they were joined by an additional 300 infantrymen who parachuted in. By noon on May 11, the garrison of 1,000 had surrendered, clearing the route to Liège. The Germans kept the details of their operation so secret that Allied strategists suspected Eben Emael had fallen due to betrayal, and the true circumstances surrounding its capture would remain unknown until after the war.

On May 13, elements of Panzer Group Kleist, led by General Paul Ludwig von Kleist, crossed the Meuse River. By the next day, the Germans had effectively breached the Meuse-Albert Canal line and entered France just west of Sedan. Continuous assaults from Stuka dive-bombers severely impacted the morale of the French defenders in this area; French commanders had been so confident that an attack through the Ardennes was impossible that the troops stationed there were almost entirely devoid of antitank and antiaircraft weapons. In contrast, the Maginot Line remained unbroken; however, the German incursion occurred at a weak point along the Belgian frontier, where the defenses were undermanned with lower-quality troops. Nonetheless, the region that the Maginot Line aimed to protect had been invaded, necessitating the eventual evacuation of the line itself.

On May 15, Heinz Guderian’s 19th Panzer Corps breached the French defenses and advanced west into open territory. The speed of this advance was remarkable, and by the standards of previous warfare, it represented a looming disaster. The German armored thrust was narrow, with thinly held if any flanks, and its front was roughly 150 miles ahead of the main body of the German forces. To the north lay the entire Belgian army, most of the British Expeditionary Force “BEF”, and at least two French armies, totaling nearly one million troops, while the rest of the French forces were positioned behind and south of them. Guderian’s superiors attempted to slow his advance to consolidate their forces, but he recognized the critical need to maintain momentum. Describing his forward movement as “reconnaissance in force,” Guderian continued his push. On May 17, he crossed the Oise River, entering the Somme valley, and raced toward its mouth at Abbeville. By May 20, Guderian had reached the English Channel, effectively cutting off communication between the Allied forces to the north and south. He took a brief pause to allow German mechanized units to reinforce his flank along the Somme before shifting northward to threaten the Channel ports of Calais and Dunkirk on May 22.

 

Other German units also achieved remarkable successes. General Erwin Rommel’s 7th Panzer Division crossed the Meuse near Dinant, Belgium, on May 13, quickly establishing a bridgehead on the west bank. On May 15, General Georg-Hans Reinhardt’s 76thPanzer Corps forced its way across the Meuse at Monthermé, breaking the French lines. Both Rommel and Reinhardt advanced west into open country. Alongside Guderian, they had created a 60-mile gap in the French defenses. Rommel’s division advanced so rapidly that it could maintain only sporadic communication with the Army High Command, leading to its nickname as a “ghost division,” as both Germans and French were uncertain of its precise location or next move. Meanwhile, Reinhardt’s corps approached the Channel ports south of the British rear at Arras.

On May 15, Gamelin informed French Premier Paul Reynaud that Paris could fall within two days. In response, Reynaud reinstated retired General Maxime Weygand, who was 73, to succeed Gamelin as commander in chief. However, Weygand did not arrive from Syria until May 19, leaving a significant gap in leadership just as German armored units advanced rapidly through Flanders. Upon taking command, Weygand immediately dismissed over a dozen generals and promoted fighting colonels, including Charles de Gaulle, to replace them. He aimed to target the German salient in the Somme Valley, but the French response was hindered by civilian refugees clogging the roads toward the front lines.

Bock’s Army Group B quickly dismantled the Dyle Line, a defensive structure from Antwerp to the French border. Antwerp and Brussels fell swiftly, and by May 19, BEF commander Gen. John Gort had begun considering evacuation by sea. On May 21, Gort launched an unexpected counterattack against Rommel’s 7th Panzer Division at Arras. Two BEF tank battalions, supported by two infantry battalions and elements from a French mechanized infantry division, struck south, briefly disrupting the 7th Panzer and parts of the Totenkopf Waffen-SS division. Despite lacking air support, sufficient artillery, or reliable intelligence on German troop movements, this British assault shocked the German army. However, due to severe disruptions in Allied communications, this localized success could not be leveraged, making Arras little more than a fleeting setback for the Germans.

While Army Group A threatened the precarious Allied position on the Channel coast from the south, Walther von Reichenau’s Sixth Army pushed the beleaguered Belgian defenders to their limits. On May 24, German forces were crossing the canal defense line near Dunkirk, the last port available for BEF evacuation, when an inexplicable order from Hitler halted their advance and commanded them to pull back to the canal. This order transformed the Allies’ retreat into a race to evacuate before the Germans encircled them. Evacuations began in earnest on May 27, becoming urgent the next day when Belgian King Leopold III surrendered his army amid a chaotic retreat and millions of civilian refugees trapped in the “Flanders pocket.”

 

Between May 26 and June 4, 1940, around 340,000 Allied troops were evacuated from Dunkirk to England. The Royal Air Force temporarily established air superiority over the Luftwaffe in the area, while the Royal Navy, with impressive coordination and the help of French naval vessels, remained close to shore to oversee the evacuation, rescuing thousands of men using overloaded destroyers and smaller craft. Additionally, approximately 700 civilian boats joined in the rescue operation. The remarkable success of the Dunkirk evacuation was partly due to the fighter cover provided by the Royal Air Force from the English coast and partly because of Hitler’s critical order on May 24 to halt the German advance. This order was based on several factors: primarily, Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, mistakenly assured Hitler that his air force could eliminate the trapped Allied troops; and Hitler appeared to believe Britain might be more inclined to accept peace terms if its pride wasn’t injured by witnessing its army surrender. After three days, Hitler rescinded his order, permitting the German armored forces to advance toward Dunkirk. However, they encountered stronger British resistance, who had fortified their defenses in the interim. Almost immediately, Hitler halted the advance again, redirecting his armored forces south to prepare for the complete conquest of France. By June 4, when the operation concluded, approximately 198,000 British and 140,000 French and Belgian troops had been saved.

By early June 1940, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and the Netherlands had fallen. The British forces had been pushed into the sea, and the Germans had captured over one million Allied soldiers within three weeks. The newly established French front along the Somme and the Aisne was called the Weygand Line. This line was longer than the original Franco-Belgian border, but the forces available to defend it were significantly reduced in both numbers and morale. The French had lost 30 divisions by this point, yet Weygand managed to assemble 49 divisions to cover the new front, leaving just 17 to defend the Maginot Line. The Germans had strengthened their 10 well-experienced armored divisions with fresh tank reinforcements, while their 130 infantry divisions remained largely intact. For the upcoming offensive, German forces were reorganized, with two new armies, the 2nd and 9th, positioned along the Aisne sector, between the Oise and the Meuse. Guderian was tasked with commanding a group of two armored corps that were prepared for action in that area. Meanwhile, Kleist retained two corps to attack from the bridgeheads over the Somme at Amiens and Péronne in a pincer movement aimed at converging on the lower Oise near Creil. The remaining armored corps was set to advance between Amiens and the coast.

At 4:00 AM on June 5, 1940, the German offensive commenced, targeting the western area between Laon and the Channel with a barrage of dive-bombers and a strong assault of mechanized and armored troops. It quickly became clear that the immediate German goal was not solely to capture Paris but to completely annihilate the remaining French armies on the battlefield. For the first two days, resistance along the Somme was fierce, but on June 7, the westernmost armored corps, led by Rommel, broke through toward Rouen. By June 8, German forces had crossed the Avre at Roye, and the capture of Noyon allowed them to advance over the Oise. The French were compelled to retreat generally from the coast to a position east of Soissons, along a front extending about 100 miles.

The defense then crumbled into disorder, and on June 9, the Germans encountered little serious opposition in crossing the Seine. However, Kleist’s pincer maneuver did not unfold as planned. The left pincer, advancing from Péronne, faced strong resistance north of Compiègne. The OKH decided to withdraw Kleist’s group and redirect it east to support a breakthrough in Champagne. This offensive did not begin until June 9 but progressed rapidly. Infantry secured crossings over the Aisne, while Guderian’s tanks surged through the breach toward Chalons-sur-Marne and then eastward. The advance quickly moved across the Langres Plateau to Besançon and the Swiss border, isolating all French forces within the Maginot Line.

On June 10, 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, was completely unprepared to capitalize on Germany’s invasion of Poland. To benefit from the Pact of Steel, it seemed essential for Mussolini to take action before Germany independently pushed the Allies to seek peace. However, both the declaration and Italy’s involvement had little impact on the outcome of the Battle of France. Although Italy had around 30 divisions ready along its Alpine frontier, they postponed their attack on southeastern France until June 20, by which time the situation was nearly resolved. When they finally launched their offensive, it made minimal headway against the French defenses.

At the same time, German forces were advancing toward the French capital. Prime Minister Reynaud and his government had already retreated from Paris to Tours, as there appeared to be no strategic reason to defend the city. On June 12, Weygand informed Reynaud and other ministers that France's war was lost and that further fighting would be futile. This assessment was undeniably accurate, as entire French armies were collapsing under the German assault. On the same day, the 51st Highland Division, a British Expeditionary Force unit operating under French command, was facing defeat at Saint-Valéry-en-Caux. Unable to reach Dunkirk, Cherbourg, or any other evacuation ports and having run out of supplies and ammunition, Major General Victor Fortune and his 10,000 troops surrendered to the Germans. Fortune became the highest-ranking British prisoner of war captured by Germany. On June 14, the French army evacuated Paris, and the Germans entered the city later that day.

The official armistice between Germany and France was signed on June 21st, just six weeks after the campaign began. The world was taken aback, as France's army had been held in high regard globally. Even Hitler's generals hadn't anticipated such an outcome. The rapid victories in Poland, Scandinavia, and the West unfolded like a flash, leading the British and American press to popularize the term "Blitzkrieg." For the Wehrmacht, these campaigns represented the pinnacle of German military success. However, as they started to buy into their own propaganda, they began to lose their professionalism. Planning and the strict adherence to orders, which had defined German military tradition since Frederick the Great, were sidelined. This insubordination would later become a significant issue in subsequent campaigns.

The response in the Soviet Union was one of shock and denial. Stalin had centered his entire strategy in the previous year around a prolonged conflict in the West. With France now out of the war and the UK seemingly weakened, adjustments needed to be made. The Red Army was still grappling with its own shortcomings from the Winter War against Finland, which had prompted a reorganization following that setback. As a result, a sense of panic began to emerge. By late summer, the Red Army initiated significant troop redeployments to the Western Military Districts. On July 21st, Hitler instructed his generals to start formulating plans for an invasion of the Soviet Union. Tensions were escalating, and both sides were in a race against time to prepare.

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In 1939, as Europe stood on the brink of war, Stalin allied with Hitler, signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact to divide Eastern Europe. Germany swiftly invaded Poland, employing a brutal blitzkrieg strategy. Afterwards Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries and France fell as the world devolved into WW2.